General Conceptual Scheme Research Articles

ПРОБЛЕМА ОБЩЕЙ ПОНЯТИЙНОЙ СХЕМЫ ОПИСАНИЯ КОНФЛИКТОВ

The article substantiates a need to develop a common conceptual and categorical apparatus of conflict resolution. Statistical data on the number of doctoral and master's theses defended in 17 branches of conflict resolution are given. As a possible variant of the general conceptual scheme for describing conflicts, groups of concepts are proposed that characterize: the essence of conflicts; their classification; structure; function dynamics; evolution; genesis; information analysis; prevention and prevention; completion principles and methods of diagnosis (research); indicators, criteria, assessment indicators. The role of risk is described as one of the important characteristics of the interaction of the warring parties. Briefly substantiates the need to study intrapersonal conflicts and zooconflicts as additional components in the object of conflict management, in which social conflict is central. The destructive and constructive functions of social conflicts are revealed. The nature of the evolution of the annual number of dissertations defended on conflict issues from 1949 to the present is described. It is concluded that the rapid reduction in the number of defended dissertations after 2005 is probably due to the exhaustion of the explanatory potential of the primary paradigms of conflict research in the branches of conflict management in the 20th century. The hypothesis is formulated that the development of a general conceptual scheme for describing conflicts can contribute: firstly, to a qualitative leap in the creation of a general theory of conflicts; secondly, a noticeable increase in the theoretical and applied level of training of conflictologists; thirdly, a significant increase in the effectiveness of their work in managing real conflicts. A proposal is made to hold an interdisciplinary discussion on the issue of a general conceptual framework for describing conflicts on the pages of the journal “Conflictology”.

The Stratification of Emotions: Some Preliminary Generalizations

Like all valued resources, positive and negative emotions are unequally distributed in a society and constitute an important basis of social stratification. In this article, a general conceptual scheme and a more specific theory of emotions are employed to offer a preliminary explanation of the dynamics of emotional stratification. This theory attempts to explain which specific positive and negative emotions will be aroused and distributed across the social class system as well as among members of differentially evaluated social categories. The theory emphasizes the importance of repression and subsequent attribution processes as central to understanding the nature, intensity, and distribution of negative emotions among individuals in lower social classes and devalued social categories. By viewing emotions as not just reactions to the unequal distribution of other resources but, rather, as a valued or punishing resource in their own right, it becomes possible to better understand how micro-level dynamics occurring in face-to-face encounters are affected by, and have effects on, meso-level and macro-level social structures and their respective cultures. In particular, the distribution of emotions can help account for both the processes of legitimatization of macrostructures and, at the same time, de-legitimization of, and collective action against, macrostructures. This analysis of emotions questions much recent theorizing and commentary, often within postmodern analysis, about the authenticity of people’s emotions in contemporary society. The stratification of emotions is as real as inequality in money and power, and it has significant effects on the dynamics of human societies.

Diheteroarylethenes as thermally stable photoswitchable acceptors in photochromic fluorescence resonance energy transfer (pcFRET).

We have employed diheteroarylethenes as acceptors for photochromic FRET (pcFRET), a technique introduced for the quantitative determination of fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET). In pcFRET, the fluorescent emission of the donor is modulated by cyclical transformations of a photochromic acceptor. Light induces a reversible change in the structure and, concomitantly, in the absorption properties of the acceptor. Only the closed forms of the selected diheteroarylethenes 2a and 2b have an absorption band overlapping the emission band of the donor, 1. The corresponding variation in the overlap integral (and thus critical transfer distance R(o)) between the two states provides the means for reversibly switching the process of FRET on and off, allowing direct and repeated evaluation of the relative changes in the donor fluorescence quantum yield. The diheteroarylethenes demonstrate excellent stability in aqueous media, an absence of thermal back reactions, and negligible fatigue. The equilibration of these systems after exposure to near-UV or visible light follows simple monoexponential kinetics. We developed a general conceptual scheme for such coupled photochromic-FRET reactions, allowing quantitative interpretations of the photostationary and kinetic data, from which the quantum yields for the cyclization and cycloreversion reactions of the photochromic acceptor were calculated.

Influence of soil properties on the aggregation of some Mediterranean soils and the use of aggregate size and stability as land degradation indicators

Soil aggregation in relation to other soil properties was studied along a climatological transect in the Southeast of Spain. Three sites were selected along this transect ranging from semiarid to subhumid climatological conditions. The aggregate size distribution, the macro and microaggregate stability of the superficial soil horizon and their relations with other soil properties were analysed. Large aggregates (>10, 10–5, 5–2 mm) were present in highest proportions in the most arid of the studied areas. These large aggregates were associated with high values of water-stable microaggregates; however, they did not improve soil structure and are related to high bulk densities and low water retention. Aggregates 1–0.105 mm were positively correlated to medium, fine, very fine sand and silt fractions and to organic matter. Aggregates <0.105 mm were positively correlated to organic matter and clay content. Small aggregate sizes (1–0.105 and <0.105 mm) had a positive influence on soil water retention and they seem a good indicator of soil degradation. Water stability of microaggregates showed a positive correlation with clay content while the stability of the macroaggregates depended on the organic matter content when the organic matter content was greater than 5 or 6%. Below that threshold the carbonate content was strongly correlated with aggregate stability. A general conceptual scheme of associations between aggregate size distribution, water-stable microaggregation and textural characteristics for the area was developed. The land use history affecting soil overlaps the pattern of climatological situations and has to be taken into account. Aggregate size distribution and stability can be used as indicator of soil degradation, but not as a unique parameter.

Alfred Nobel's unusual creativity: an analysis

Howard Gardner identified five different kinds of creative activity among eminent creators, namely, solving a well-defined problem, putting forth a general conceptual scheme, creating a product that embodies ideas, stylized innovation of an art form, and a ‘high-stakes’ performance in the socio-political arena. In this paper, I report that Alfred Nobel's creativity can be assigned to two mutually exclusive domains. In the scientific domain, he solved a well-defined problem of his time in the study of explosives, by patenting dynamite, creating blasting gelatin as an ideal explosive and developing a nearly smokeless blasting powder. In the socio-political domain, Nobel designed a ‘unique instrument’ (in the form of annual prizes, which later came to be known as Nobel prizes) to recognize merit among those who contributed to social welfare at the global scale. The influence of Nobel's mentors, Nikolai Zinin, Yuli Trapp, Theophile-Jules Pelouze, Ascanio Sobrero, John Ericcson and Immanuel Nobel in igniting Nobel's scientific creativity also deserves recognition. Personal traits that helped Nobel to sharpen his creativity include his business acumen and talent for information access using his multi-lingual skills.

Der Produktionssinn von Gesetzestexten: Methodologische Überlegungen zum Verhältnis von Gesetzessprache und juristischem Handeln

Zusammenfassung Dieser Artikel versucht einen Beitrag zur Methodologie der soziologischen Interpretation von Gesetzestexten zu leisten. Er konzentriert sich auf die Frage, inwieweit die Art und Weise der Rechtsetzung in die sprachliche Form von Gesetzestexten eingelagert ist. Es wird ein allgemeiner Begriffsrahmen für diesen Zusammenhang vorgeschlagen und anhand eines Fallbeispiels gezeigt, wie sich die Rechtsetzung durch eine weitgehend textimmanente Gesetzesinterpretation erschließt. Die Analyse macht deutlich, daß die sprachliche Ausdrucksgestalt von Gesetzen - unabhängig von deren Inhalten - eine eigene Strukturierungsebene für das juristische Handeln darstellt.

Private time and public time: the temporal structure of social accessibility and professional commitments.

This paper highlights the temporal aspects of social accessibility, demonstrating that time is a major dimension of social organization along which both privacy and professional commitments are defined in modern society. An analysis of the temporal structure of professional commitments within the domain of health care, leads to the claim that the temporally rigid way in which most professional commitments are defined today is one of the key characteristics of modern social organization. A general conceptual scheme, constructed around the temporal structure of social accessibility, is evaluated in terms of its use in helping us identify and differentiate various occupational roles as well as various status rankings within stratification systems. The symbolic significance of the temporal organization of social accessibility is stressed-both in general, and for professional commitments in particular.

A Theory of Internal Migration Differentials

The differential characteristics of streams of migration are regarded as consequences of social and cultural constraints upon the head of a household. These constraints are expressed in terms of occupation of head of household. Environmental and structural factors will be mediated by the degree of future orientation and the degree of local orientation characterizing various occupations. Deductions for several characteristics of streams are made and supporting data are included. T HE problem for this paper-how can we predict the differentials in the various streams of migration?-stems from the research literature on internal migration differentials. Dorothy Swaine Thomas summarized the findings for each characteristic of the streams.' Bogue and Hagood cross classified the characteristics of streams in order to determine the joint effect, or interaction, of several characteristics considered simultaneously.2 We have tried to develop a general conceptual scheme from which the results of these monographs can be deduced.3 We have then tested the scheme further with the 1935-40 and 1949-50 data on streams of internal migration in Indiana. We shall first introduce our conceptualization and then present some of our data. Consider a person faced with the prospect of migration. We will assume that the move is to an entirely new locale, and is not merely a shifting of residences within the locale.4 Up until the time when the head of the house retires, the move will have some sort of economic significance for members of the household; that is, if they are not members of the leisure class. Let us assume, therefore that the move is largely determined by economic factors affecting the head of the household-usually his employment-and that the other members of the family must move with the head. We no longer have a group decision but rather a single decision

The Survey Course in Social Science: An Appraisal

T nHAT THE survey course in social science is making its way in colleges and universities has been demonstrated in the preceding paper. There is, however, still a recalcitrant opposition which, partly on educational grounds and partly because the shift to the survey course involves so much inconvenient readjustment and upsets so many vested interests, is still insistent on maintaining the departmentalized curriculum intact. Even among the supporters of the survey course idea there is still much confusion about the differing aims of the various types of survey now being experimented with, and the issues as between the survey and the courses which it replaces are not clear cut. It is hoped in this paper to clarify some of these issues and define the role of the social science survey course in the curriculum a little more exactly. This may help to get consideration of it, by sociologists at least, on its real merits. For the survey is a valuable educational instrument and not just a device created by soft-headed educationists and administrators to keep overworked professors still busier, and to convince the public that X University is more progressive than most. We must begin by agreeing on a definition of what a social science survey course is, because in its present unstandardized state of development many different types of courses pass under that name. For the purposes of our discussion it will be defined as a course offered to college freshmen or sophomores in which the subject matter is drawn from all three of the academic fields of political science, economics, and sociology, and may also be taken from history, anthropology, human geography, social psychology, or any other social science. It is further assumed in the definition that (I) the students enrolled will not have had any previous work at college level in any social science covered in the survey course content and (2) that some effort has been made to interweave or, to use the fashionable term, to integrate, the materials from separate disciplines in relation to some general conceptual scheme. The previous paper has suggested some of the integrating ideas and principles that have been employed in survey courses to date.