Datura Research Articles

Tropane Alkaloid Variation in the Genus Datura and its Consequences for Cultural Practices

Tropane Alkaloid Variation in the Genus Datura and its Consequences for Cultural Practices

Comparative transcriptome profiling reveals distinct regulatory responses of secondary defensive metabolism in Datura species (Solanaceae) under plant development and herbivory-mediated stress.

Differential expression of genes is key to mediating developmental and stress-related plant responses. Here, we addressed the regulation of plant metabolic responses to biotic stress and the developmental variation of defense-related genes in four species of the genus Datura with variable patterns of metabolite accumulation and development. We combine transcriptome profiling with phylogenomic techniques to analyze gene expression and coexpression in plants subjected to damage by a specialist folivore insect. We found (1) common overall gene expression in species of similar chemical profiles, (2) species-specific responses of proteins involved in specialized metabolism, characterized by constant levels of gene expression coupled with transcriptional rearrangement, and (3) induction of transcriptional rearrangement of major terpene and tropane alkaloid genes upon herbivory. Our results indicate differential modulation of terpene and tropane metabolism linked to jasmonate signaling and specific transcription factors to regulate developmental variation and stress programs, and suggest plastic adaptive responses to cope with herbivory. The transcriptional profiles of specialized metabolism shown here reveal complex genetic control of plant metabolism and contribute to understanding the molecular basis of adaptations and the physiological variation of significant ecological traits.

Tropane alkaloids (hyoscyamine, scopolamine and atropine) from genus Datura: extractions, contents, syntheses and effects

Belonging to family Solanaceae , genus Datura is widely distributed all over the world and famous for its narcosis and acesodyne in ancient China. And Datura is also annoying due to the poisoning and hallucinogenic effects. Besides the medicine, it plays a magical role in seed germination and plant growth, and has good effects against plant diseases, insectsand weeding. Its main function components are tropane alkaloids (TAs), including hyoscyamine , scopolamine and atropine (HSA). They share a common tropane fragment (N-methyl-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1] octane). L -hyoscyamine and scopolamine are natural active ingredients in Datura , while atropine is an equal mixture of L -hyoscyamine and D -hyoscyamine, produced by the racemization of L -hyoscyamine during the extraction. As competitive antagonists of acetylcholine muscarinic (M-) choline receptors, HSA potently regulates the central nervous system (CNS). In addition, scopolamine shows effectiveness in the treatment of the respiratory and digestive system diseases, such as acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and gastrointestinal motility disorders. Hyoscyamine has remarkable effects on treating Parkinson's disease, bradyarrhythmias and genitourinary symptoms. Atropine is widely used in the treatment of myopia, amblyopia and organophosphorus poisoning. Recently, scopolamine-induced disease models play an important role in the exploration of the effects of drugs in amnesia, cognitive impairment and neuronal damage. In this review, we aim to summarize the contents of HSA in different Datura species and their influencing factors, performe an overview of the biosynthesis and chemical synthesis pathways and analyze the key synthetase in the NCBI database, highlight the effect of Datura extract and HSA on resisting plant insects and diseases, controlling weeds and treating different kinds of diseases in human. • The efficient extraction methods of Datura extract are sorted and compared. • The contents of HSA in different Datura species and plant organs vary greatly. • The key HAS synthase genes identified in Solanaceae are less studied in Datura . • HSA play important role in medicine, plant disease control and insect resistance. • HSA have potential in biological control and medicinal industrialized production.

Antifungal Activity of Datura stramonium L. Extractives against Xylophagous Fungi

Some plants have great resistance against herbivores, invertebrates, insects, bacteria, and fungi. This resistance is mostly present in plants containing alkaloids, which are the substances responsible for giving them defensive properties. The genus Datura contains tropane alkaloids and all plants from this genus have defensive properties. In this work, we report the toxic effect against fungi of Datura stramonium extracts, obtained by the Petri dish method. The extraction solvents were water, ethanol, 2-propanol, n-butanol, propanone, butanone, 3-methyl-2-pentanone, dichloromethane, xylene, and toluene. The test fungi were Trametes versicolor (L. ex. Fr) Pilát and Rhodonia placenta (Fr.) Niemelä, K.H.Larss. & Schigel. It was found that water, butanone, and toluene extracts promoted mycelial growth, xylene extracts neither inhibited nor promoted mycelial growth, while the other extracts slightly inhibited the growth of these fungi.

New sesquiterpenoid and aliphatic glycoside from the roots of Datura metel L.

Three new compounds (1–3), were isolated from the 70%-EtOH extract of the roots of Datura metel L., along with thirty-six knowns (4–39). Their chemical structures were established based on extensive spectroscopic analyses, including HR-ESI-MS, 1D NMR, and 2D NMR as well as comparison with the data reported in the literature. Compounds 7, 8, 10, 12, 14, 15, 19-23, 27, 29, 31, and 34 were isolated from Solanaceae for the first time and compounds 4, 5, 9, 17, 18, and 26 were firstly isolated from the genus Datura. Moreover, compounds 1, 5, 9, 12, 13, 17, 23, 24, 28, 37, and 39 showed potential anti-inflammatory activities (IC50 <45 μM).

Pharmacological, Biopesticide and Post-Harvest Loss Management Application of Jimsonweed (Datura Stramonium)

Abstract: Datura stramonium is one of the most intriguing, in part because of its well-known therapeutic and psychoactive properties in the treatment of many diseases. Datura species have been found to exhibit a variety of biological activity. Insecticide, fungicide, antioxidant, antibacterial, hypoglycemic, and immune response boosting properties have been linked to the genus' species. These effects are linked to the existence of secondary metabolites such as terpenoids, flavonoids, with anolides, tannins, phenolic compounds, and tropane alkaloids, which are the most prevalent atropine and scopolamine in the genus Datura. Ingestion of jimson weed produces the toxidrome of anticholinergic intoxication. Understanding and recognizing the classic signs and symptoms of anticholinergic intoxication can help clinicians evaluate persons presenting with jimson weed poisoning. Moreover, this review is to identify the most important phytochemical substances extracted from the jimsonweed and to characterize their biological activity for health effect and biopesticide application. This is because bio-pesticides are less harmful than chemical pesticides because they do not leave harmful residues, generally target one specific pest or a small number of related pests versus broad spectrum chemical pesticides that affect, in addition to the pest, other beneficial insects, birds, mammals, or non-target species, are effective in smaller quantities, decompose quickly and do not cause environmental problems, and are often cheaper than chemical pesticides. In conclusion, Datura stramonium, beside its medicinal value, can applicable for biopesticide application and for post-harvest loss control of insects such as weevil.

Alkaloids of the Genus Datura: Review of a Rich Resource for Natural Product Discovery.

The genus Datura (Solanaceae) contains nine species of medicinal plants that have held both curative utility and cultural significance throughout history. This genus’ particular bioactivity results from the enormous diversity of alkaloids it contains, making it a valuable study organism for many disciplines. Although Datura contains mostly tropane alkaloids (such as hyoscyamine and scopolamine), indole, beta-carboline, and pyrrolidine alkaloids have also been identified. The tools available to explore specialized metabolism in plants have undergone remarkable advances over the past couple of decades and provide renewed opportunities for discoveries of new compounds and the genetic basis for their biosynthesis. This review provides a comprehensive overview of studies on the alkaloids of Datura that focuses on three questions: How do we find and identify alkaloids? Where do alkaloids come from? What factors affect their presence and abundance? We also address pitfalls and relevant questions applicable to natural products and metabolomics researchers. With both careful perspectives and new advances in instrumentation, the pace of alkaloid discovery—from not just Datura—has the potential to accelerate dramatically in the near future.

SECONDARY METABOLITES AND BIOLOGICAL PROFILES OF DATURA GENUS

Solanaceae is an important family of plants where many species of this family are source for food, industrial products, ornamental and medicinal uses. Within the family of Solanaceae, the genus Datura is one of the most interesting, in principle for its known medicinal and psychotropic uses against different pathologies. Multiple biological activities of Datura species have been documented. The species of the genus are attributed with insecticide, fungicide, antioxidant, antimicrobial, hypoglycemic, and immune response enhancing activity against cancer cells. These activities are related to the presence of different secondary metabolites such us: terpenoids, flavonoids, withanolides, tannins, phenolic compounds and tropane alkaloids, the main secondary metabolite of the genus Datura, being the most abundant atropine and scopolamine. The propose of this review is to identify the main phytochemical compounds isolated from the genus Datura and describe their biological activities associated to different secondary metabolites.

Determination of atropine and scopolamine in spinach-based products contaminated with genus Datura by UHPLC–MS/MS

Datura species are well known because of their high concentration of tropane alkaloids, which has led to poisoning episodes when Datura is accidentally mixed with edible crops. Therefore, the European Union has set a maximum level in cereal-based infant food products of 1 µg kg−1 for atropine and scopolamine. However, the occurrence of these compounds in other commodities has become a global concern. Spinach and derived products can be contaminated with Datura innoxia leaves. In this study, we tested frozen spinachs and spinach-based infant food products. The determination was carried out by UHPLC–MS/MS after applying the QuEChERS method as sample treatment. The LOQs were below 0.016 µg kg−1, achieving satisfactory results in terms of precision, accuracy, and matrix effects. The obtained results (ranging between 0.02 and 8.19 µg kg−1) were close to the maximum level set by the European Union for 24% of the samples tested.

Development of Herbal Antibiotic Formulation against Staphylococcus aureus from leaf extract of Datura inoxia containing Triacylglycerol

Development of Herbal Antibiotic Formulation against Staphylococcus aureus from leaf extract of Datura inoxia containing Triacylglycerol

Preclinical anticancer studies on the ethyl acetate leaf extracts of Datura stramonium and Datura inoxia

BackgroundCancer is a horrific disease relentlessly affecting human population round the globe. Genus Datura encompasses numerous species with reported medicinal uses. However, its potential as a source of natural anticancer agents is yet to be determined. Datura stramonium (DS) and Datura inoxia (DI) are the two species chosen for this study.MethodsTotal phenolic and flavonoid content (TPC and TFC) as well as antioxidant activity were assessed through colorimetric method. Polyphenolic quantification was done by RP-HPLC. Following extract standardization ethyl acetate leaf extracts of both species (DSL-EA and DIL-EA) were chosen for anticancer studies. In vitro cytotoxicity using various models including cancer cell lines was monitored. Following toxicity studies, benzene (0.2 ml) was used to induce leukemia in Sprague-Dawley rats. Extracts were orally administered to preventive (100 and 200 mg/kg) and treatment (200 mg/kg only) groups. The antileukemic potential of extracts was assessed through haematological, biochemical, endogenous antioxidants and histological parameters.ResultsSignificant TPC and TFC were estimated in DSL-EA and DIL-EA. RP-HPLC quantified (μg/mg extract) rutin (0.89 ± 0.03), gallic acid (0.35 ± 0.07), catechin (0.24 ± 0.02) and apigenin (0.29 ± 0.09) in DSL-EA while rutin (0.036 ± 0.004) and caffeic acid (0.27 ± 0.03) in DIL-EA. Both extracts exhibited significant brine shrimp cytotoxicity (LC50 < 12.5 μg/ml). DIL-EA exhibited greater cytotoxicity against PC-3, MDA-MB 231 and MCF-7 cell lines (IC50 < 3 μg/ml in each case) as well as higher protein kinase inhibitory action (MIC: 25 μg/disc) compared to DSL-EA. Leukemia induced in rats was affirmed by elevated serum levels of WBCs (7.78 ± 0.012 (× 103) /μl), bilirubin (7.56 ± 0.97 mg/dl), Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARs) (133.75 ± 2.61 nM/min/mg protein), decreased RBCs (4.33 ± 0.065 (× 106)/μl), platelets (344 ± 3.19 (× 103)/μl), total proteins (2.14 ± 0.11 g/dl), Glutathione S-transferases (GST) (81.01 ± 0.44 nM/min/ml), endogenous antioxidant enzymes levels and abnormal liver and kidney functionality in disease control rats. Both species revealed almost identical and significant (p < 0.05) alleviative effects in benzene induced leukemia.ConclusionComprehensive screening divulged the tremendous potential of selected species as potent source of natural anticancer agents in a variety of cancers particularly leukemia. Present study might provide useful finger prints in cancer research and mechanistic studies are prerequisite in logical hunt of this goal.

An immunocompromised and polymedicated patient presenting a confusional syndrome

We present the case of a 52-year-old patient, 108 kg, admitted to the Emergency Department (ED) of New Caledonia Hospital Center in August 2018 for confusional syndrome and major agitation requiring the establishment of an important chemical restraint. In terms of medical history, the patient, a bricklayer with chronic cough in a context of diffuse interstitial pneumonitis related to chronic cement inhalation treated with long-term oxygen therapy and an association of micophenolate mofetil and prednisone, presented a month earlier a respiratory decompensation of infectious origin. On the morning of his new admission, he was perfectly fine. Then, he progressively presented coughing fits as well as neurological disorders. Medical examination in ED found tachycardia with heart rate = 92, confusional state associated with non-reactive bilateral mydriasis, language disorder, obsession and severe agitation, no fever. A mucocutaneous dryness was also noted. Blood and CSF biological investigations, cerebral CT with injection performed under midazolam sedation, revealed no abnormality. Patient was transferred to ICU for further sedation in front of persistent agitation, despite cyamemazine, haloperidol and clorazepate administrations. EEG found well-organised activity without seizure or paroxysm. From the interview with the family, it finally emerged that, if the patient did not consume any intoxicant, he was treated in addition to his immunosuppressive treatment with Lercanidipine, Esomeprazole, Allopurinol and Amitryptiline. Furthermore, he has been self-medicating for a week by plant decoctions for an episode of ichthyosarcotoxism of the ciguatera type. In front of the characteristic symptomatology of an anticholinergic syndrome, a poisoning by plants of the genus Datura or Brugmensia was considered. Blood and urine samples were taken 4 h after the appearance of the disorders for toxicological analysis using LC-UV-DAD (Acquity ® Waters ® system) and LC-MS/MS (Alliance ® and QuatroMicro ® Waters ® system). LC-UV-DAD urine analysis showed the presence of scopolamine and signed an acute intoxication by a probable tropical datura. Quantification, performed a posteriori by LC-MS/MS, confirmed the intoxication. Atropine concentrations were: undetected and 6.2 ng/mL in blood and urine, respectively; scopolamine concentrations were: 1.6 ng/mL and 643 ng/mL in blood and urine, respectively. Taking into account an elimination half-life of scopolamine between 1 h and 3 h, these concentrations are compatible with the clinical signs observed. It is likely that the patient has mistaken the leaves of “octopus bush” ( Heliotropium foertherianum , Boraginaceae ), a reputed traditional medicine plant to treat ciguatera fish poisoning, with leaves of a Brugmensia spp ( Solanaceae ). Given the heavy medical history of this patient, the questioning of his entourage has been crucial in the rapid orientation of the investigations in search of poisoning by plant and, taking into account the toxidrome presented in a tropical context, to look more specifically for the presence of scopolamine in the patient's urine. Subsequently, evolution was gradually favourable with normal neurological examination and hospital discharge at day 7.

In vitro plant regeneration and Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation of Datura stramonium (Solanaceae).

Premise of the Study Datura stramonium is a pharmacologically and evolutionarily important plant species in the family Solanaceae. Stable transformation methodology of this species would be advantageous for future genetic studies.MethodsIn vitro plant regeneration and Agrobacterium tumefaciens–mediated transformation techniques were developed for D. stramonium based on methods reported for tomato. A binary vector containing pAtUBQ10::erGFP was used for transformation.ResultsWe recovered primary transformants harboring the green fluorescent protein (GFP) transgene that resulted in expression of fluorescence in all tissues analyzed. Transformants were allowed to self‐pollinate, and two of five progeny contained the GFP transgene and displayed fluorescence identical to the primary transformants.DiscussionWe have demonstrated the first stable transformation in the genus Datura. This is a key first step to study the genetic basis of traits in this evolutionarily interesting species.

Efficiency of resource-saving agrotechnology of growing medicine durman mexican (Datura innoxia mill)

Efficiency of resource-saving agrotechnology of growing medicine durman mexican (Datura innoxia mill)

洋金花东莨菪碱提取物弃液回收莨菪碱的工艺研究

洋金花东莨菪碱提取物弃液回收莨菪碱的工艺研究

Viability estimation and morphological characterization of pollen Datura suaveolens Willd (Solanaceae)

The species Datura suaveolens W. belongs to the family Solanaceae. It is a natural shrub species of the Himalayas, is widely distributed in South America and Brazil. In Brazil it is cultivated for medicinal and ornamental purposes. The objective of this work was to perform the morphological characterization and verify the pollen viability of the D. suaveolens species by means of colorimetric tests in order to determine the best dye for the species. Flower buds of Datura suaveolens were collected with occurrence in the municipality of Alta Floresta, MT. The experiment was carried out at the Cytogenetic and Tissue Culture Laboratory at the State University of Mato Grosso, Alta Floresta University Campus. For the estimation of pollen viability, three different dyes were evaluated: lugol, Alexander’s reactive and acetic orcein. For the pollen morphology, forty pollen grains stained with 3% safranin were analyzed. The morphological parameters analyzed were: equatorial diameter, polar diameter, size and shape and opening of the pollen grains. The diameter measurements were measured with the help of ImageJ software. The Alexander’s reactive is the most recommended colorimetric method for the pollen viability analysis of Datura Suaveolens because it revealed the highest average of viable pollen and presents a better visual distinction between viable and non-viable pollen. The Datura Suaveolens species has large pollen grains with Oblate-Spheroidal shape, the opening of the pollen is 3-pore type. The mean polar diameter of the species is 70.99 μm and the equatorial diameter is 67.94 μm.

A Novel Strain of the Begomovirus Tomato Leaf Curl Sudan Virus Infecting Datura stramonium in Sudan.

HomePlant DiseaseVol. 102, No. 9A Novel Strain of the Begomovirus Tomato Leaf Curl Sudan Virus Infecting Datura stramonium in Sudan PreviousNext DISEASE NOTES OPENOpen Access licenseA Novel Strain of the Begomovirus Tomato Leaf Curl Sudan Virus Infecting Datura stramonium in SudanH. S. Mohammed, M. A. El Siddig, A. A. El Hussein, J. Navas-Castillo, and E. Fiallo-OlivéH. S. MohammedSearch for more papers by this author, M. A. El SiddigSearch for more papers by this author, A. A. El HusseinSearch for more papers by this author, J. Navas-CastilloSearch for more papers by this author, and E. Fiallo-Olivé†Corresponding author: E. Fiallo-Olivé; E-mail: E-mail Address: [email protected]http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2460-1199Search for more papers by this authorAffiliationsAuthors and Affiliations H. S. Mohammed , Botany Department, Faculty of Science, University of Khartoum, 11115 Khartoum, Sudan, and Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea “La Mayora”, Universidad de Málaga – Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IHSM-UMA-CSIC), 29750 Algarrobo-Costa, Málaga, Spain M. A. El Siddig A. A. El Hussein , Botany Department, Faculty of Science, University of Khartoum, 11115 Khartoum, Sudan J. Navas-Castillo E. Fiallo-Olivé † , IHSM-UMA-CSIC, 29750 Algarrobo-Costa, Málaga, Spain. Published Online:6 Jul 2018https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-01-18-0195-PDNAboutSectionsSupplemental ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack Citations ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditEmailWechat Devil’s trumpet (Datura stramonium) plants were frequently observed showing yellowing and leaf curl symptoms in Khartoum State (Sudan) in the last few years. Leaf samples from 14 symptomatic plants were collected in Ajaily (one in 2016 and seven in 2017) and Soba Al-Hilla (six in 2017) and dried using silica gel until analysis. To investigate the presence of begomoviruses (genus Begomovirus, family Geminiviridae), total nucleic acids were extracted from all leaf samples and used as template for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with generic primers (AV494 and AC1048) targeting a core region of the begomoviral coat protein gene (Wyatt and Brown 1996). All samples yielded the expected DNA fragment of 550 bp. All 14 PCR products were directly sequenced at Macrogen (Seoul, South Korea) and showed a nucleotide identity of 99.2 to 100% between them. Blast analysis evidenced the highest nucleotide identity (98%) with an isolate of tomato leaf curl Sudan virus (ToLCSDV) found infecting tomato in Sudan (GenBank accession no. KC763630) (Fiallo-Olivé et al. 2013), suggesting that the symptomatic plants were infected by ToLCSDV. Rolling-circle amplification (RCA) using φ29 DNA polymerase (TempliPhi kit, GE Healthcare, Little Chalfont, UK) was carried out with extracts of all samples, and subsequent digestion with HpaII yielded identical restriction patterns for all of them. RCA products were also digested with a set of six-nucleotide restriction enzymes (BamHI, HindIII, EcoRI, and SalI). BamHI yielded an amplicon of ∼2.7 kbp from all the samples, which was cloned from one of them (sample Ajaily-2016) into pBluescript II SK(+) (Stratagene, La Jolla, CA). Two selected clones were sequenced (Macrogen) and were identical (2,768 nt, one deposited in GenBank under accession no. MG868938). Sequence was aligned with those selected after BLAST analysis using MUSCLE, and identity percentages were calculated with Sequence Demarcation Tool (Muhire et al. 2014). Cloned full-length viral genome showed the highest nucleotide identity (91%) with the abovementioned ToLCSDV isolate (KC763630) (Fiallo-Olivé et al. 2013). In accordance with the current taxonomic criteria for begomovirus species (cutoff value <91%) and strain (cutoff value <94%) demarcation (Brown et al. 2015), the begomovirus isolate characterized in this investigation represents a novel strain of ToLCSDV that we name strain Datura. To our knowledge, this is the first record of a species of the genus Datura as a natural host of ToLCSDV. Tomato leaf curl disease is a major limiting factor of tomato production in Sudan, at times resulting in up to 75% yield losses (Yassin 1983). The widespread presence of D. stramonium in areas where tomato is grown in Sudan poses an additional threat to the cultivation of this important crop in the region.

Comprehensive Analysis of Phytochemical Constituents and Ethnopharmacological Investigation of Genus Datura

The genus Datura comprises wild shrub plants that belong to the Solanaceae family. Naturally, they possess both medicinal and poisonous properties due to the presence of many biologically active phytochemical constituents. Traditionally, Datura had been used for mystic and religious purposes, as a natural drug to treat asthma, pain, gout, boils, abscesses, and wounds, and as psychoactive infusions and fumitories. Different Datura species exhibit diverse ethnopharmacological activities against different diseases, and many ancient and traditional cultures have used various forms of Datura to treat ailments and to prevent many diseases. In this article, we comprehensively summarize various phytochemical constituents isolated from Datura, their pharmacological properties against different diseases, parts of the plants used as traditional therapeutic agents, regions where they are located, and botanical descriptions of different Datura species. The ethnopharmacological properties of Datura may provide new insights for discovery and development of natural drugs. Further research is needed for the investigation of mechanisms of action and to develop safety profiles of the phytochemical constituents isolated from Datura species.

Complete genome sequence of datura leaf curl virus, a novel begomovirus infecting Datura innoxia in Sudan, related to begomoviruses causing tomato yellow leaf curl disease.

Several species in the genus Datura (family Solanaceae) are hosts for begomoviruses (family Geminiviridae), both in the New World and the Old World. Here, we report the genome characterization of two isolates of a novel Old World monopartite begomovirus infecting Datura innoxia in Sudan, which we propose to be named "datura leaf curl virus" (DaLCV). Pairwise sequence comparisons and phylogenetic analysis showed that DaLCV isolates are related to begomoviruses causing tomato yellow leaf curl disease, a global menace for tomato crops. Thus, the novel begomovirus could pose an additional threat to tomato cultivation in Africa.

Are tropane alkaloids present in organic foods? Detection of scopolamine and atropine in organic buckwheat (Fagopyron esculentum L.) products by UHPLC–MS/MS

A closer monitoring of tropane alkaloids (TA) in foods is now recommended by the European Commission, following a series of alerts related to the contamination of buckwheat with weeds of the genus Datura. A novel, accurate UHPLC–MS/MS method was developed and validated for the rapid detection of scopolamine and atropine in buckwheat foods. A suitable extraction protocol was set up to maximize recoveries and detection limits in different raw, processed and baked foods. The method offers good performances in terms of sensitivity, accuracy and precision, with LOQs at 0.04 and 0.10µg/kg. The established method is suitable for routine determination of trace levels of TA and was applied to 26 different buckwheat-derived organic foods, detecting TA in 3 samples (13.9–83.9µg/kg for atropine and 5.7–10.4µg/kg for scopolamine). Only in one case the level of contamination was relevant in terms of food safety.