Russian Gene Pool Research Articles

Healthy and harmonic childhood - foundation of the «Health of healthy» concept

Within the framework of the «Health of Healthy» concept (A.N. Razumov) a medical, psychological and pedagogical «Sonatal-pedagogy» system (M.L. Lazarev) aimed at harmonizing the mental and physical development of children from the prenatal age has been developed In Russia. The system has been tested since 1983 on population of more than 70 thous. children. The results showed its high effectiveness and safety (in relation to pregnancy, childbirth, breastfeeding, somatic health, psychomotor development and children's abilities). Scaling of the Sonatal-pedagogy, in particular the system of prenatal education, will contribute to the sanitation of the Russian gene pool, demography improvement and formation of responsible parenthood.

Distribution Peculiarities of Y-Chromosome Haplogroups in the Population of St. Petersburg in Connection with the Problem of Creation Reference Data Bases

In the sample of male residents of St. Petersburg, Y-chromosome haplogroups were determined by genotyping 18 STR Y-chromosome (DYS389I, DYS389II, DYS390, DYS19, DYS385A, DYS385B, DYS456, DYS437, DYS438, DYS447, DYS448, DYS449, DYS391, DYS392, DYS393, DYS439, DYS635 and DYS576) and data on genetic demography were collected by means of a questionnaire. The distribution of Y-chromosome haplogroups in St. Petersburg residents generally corresponds to the published data on Russian gene pool, with the most frequent haplogroups R1a, R1b, E1b1b1, N, T, I1, I2, J1 and J2, and with the predominance of haplogroup R1a. The presence of “southern by origin” haplogroups (C3, G2a, G2c, J1, J2, L, O2, O3, Q, R2 and T) entering the megalopolis with a flow of migrants, with a total frequency of 16% (in Moscow – 18.1%) was noted. A comparative analysis of the frequency distributions of Y-chromosome haplogroups in residents of St. Petersburg and Moscow revealed statistically significant differences in the frequency of haplogroup E1b1b1, and differences in the ratio of I1 and I2, determined by geographic position. Based on the survey data, a sample of Russian men who had no ancestors of another ethnicity in the male line in the two previous generations was formed. Significant differences in the frequency of “southern-origin” haplogroups were established between the initial sample of residents of St. Petersburg (16%) and the sample of men with Russian ancestors in two previous generations (4.1%). The obtained result confirms the spectrum of haplogroups of “southern origin” as penetrating into the gene pool of the population of a megalopolis with migrant flows and indicates the need for genetic and demographic questionnaires when forming reference databases for a megalopolis, as well as for their timely updating due to changes in the gene pool under the influence of migration.

Whole Genome Screening Procures a Holistic Hold of the Russian Chicken Gene Pool Heritage and Demographic History.

A study for genomic variation that may reflect putative selective signaling and be associated with economically important traits is instrumental for obtaining information about demographic and selection history in domestic animal species and populations. A rich variety of the Russian chicken gene pool breeds warrants a further detailed study. Specifically, their genomic features can derive implications from their genome architecture and selective footprints for their subsequent breeding and practical efficient exploitation. In the present work, whole genome genotyping of 19 chicken breeds (20 populations with up to 71 samples each) was performed using the Chicken 50 K BeadChip DNA chip. The studied breed sample included six native Russian breeds of chickens developed in the 17th-19th centuries, as well as eight Russian chicken breeds, including the Russian White (RW), created in the 20th century on the basis of improving local chickens using breeds of foreign selection. Five specialized foreign breeds of chickens, including the White Leghorn (WL), were used along with other breeds representing the Russian gene pool. The characteristics of the genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships of the native breeds of chickens were represented in comparison with foreign breeds. It was established that the studied native breeds demonstrate their own genetic structure that distinguishes them from foreign breeds, and from each other. For example, we previously made an assumption on what could cause the differences between two RW populations, RW1 and RW2. From the data obtained here, it was verified that WL was additionally crossed to RW2, unlike RW1. Thus, inherently, RW1 is a purer population of this improved Russian breed. A significant contribution of the gene pool of native breeds to the global genetic diversity of chickens was shown. In general, based on the results of a multilateral survey of this sample of breeds, it can be concluded that phylogenetic relationships based on their genetic structure and variability robustly reflect the known, previously postulated and newly discovered patterns of evolution of native chickens. The results herein presented will aid selection and breeding work using this gene pool.

Взаимодействие генофондов русского и финноязычного населения Тверской области: анализ 4 млн SNP-маркеров

This study explored the gene pools of Russian and Karelian populations of Tver region. Forty-one samples representing Tver Karels (n = 11) and Russians residing in the Western, Central and Eastern districts of Tver region (n = 30) were genotyped using a genome-wide panel of 4,559,465 SNPs. In order to investigate the phenomenon of genetic admixture between Slavic and Finnish-speaking populations, the obtained results were compared to the data on the Russian populations inhabiting the neighboring territories, Karels from Karelia and other North Eastern Europeans. Studying the gene pools of Russian populations with a genome-wide SNP panel is essential for cataloging their genetic diversity and identifying the distinct features of regional gene pools; in addition, it provides valuable data for practical pharmacogenomics and forensics. Using the principal component analysis, the ADMIXTURE method and D- and f3-statistics, we demonstrated that the gene pool of Tver Karels is closest to the gene pool of Karelian Karels, despite a long (300 to 500 years) history of living among the larger Russian population and the twentyfold population decline during the 20th century. At the same time, the gene pool of Tver Karels exhibits more pronounced similarity to the gene pool of the studied Russian populations than does any other Karelian population. The genetic admixture between Tver Russians and Tver Karels occurred due to a more intense gene flow from Russians to Karels whereas the gene flow from Karels to Russians was much weaker: Tver Russians turned out to be as genetically different from Karels as Pskov Russians. The genetic similarity of Tver Karels to Karelian Karels assessed with the autosomal SNP panel exhibits a slight shift towards the Russian gene pool and is consistent with the previously published analysis of Y-chromosome lineages in these populations that detected no admixture between Tver Karels and Russians.

Genetic Variability of Indels in the Prolactin and Dopamine Receptor D2 Genes and Their Association with the Yield of Allanto-Amniotic Fluid in Russian White Laying Hens

Currently, there is virtually no information on genetic factors affecting the yield of allanto-amniotic fluid, which is the raw material for the production of human and animal vaccines. Association studies including this trait are beneficial for increasing productivity of a biotechnological line of chickens used for the production of ‘Clean Eggs’. We examined here a population of the Russian White breed for the effects of indels in the prolactin (PRL) and dopamine receptor D2 (DRD2) genes on the yield of extraembryonic fluid (YEF) and embryo weight at 12.5 days of development. A 24-bp insertion in the 5' flanking region of the PRL gene significantly (P<0.01) increases YEF in the embryos. The heterozygous embryos contained the highest YEF (9.6 mL) than that of the homozygous insertion (9.4 mL) and deletion embryos (8.4 mL). We also found a significant association (P<0.001) between the PRL genotypes and egg weight (EW). The results of the present study suggest a significant association between the PRL gene variation and quantitative traits in the Russian White chickens, contributing to a long-term programme on the effective use of the genetic potential of Russian gene pool breeds and populations of chickens.

Origin and exterior features analysis of geese breeds genealogical groups in Russian gene pool herd

The geese breeds not used in industrial poultry farming have become not numerous and exist mainly as closed populations. Therefore, the study and evaluation process of their inherent characteristics is closely related to the problem of breed conservation. Herewith the main objective is not the best genotypes selection, but the reproduction of the existing ones without their inherent qualities loss. The research objective is the analyses of the relationship between the preserved goose breeds and the study of the manifestation regularity of breed marking features in related bird groups. Materials and methods.The research was carried out on the basis of Federal State Budgetary Research Institution (FSBRI) “Verkhnevolzhsky Federal Agricultural Research Center (FARC)” (town of Suzdal). Nowadays the collection of geese in Suzdal is the richest both in Russia and abroad. It amounts 21 breeds of domestic and foreign selection. The research results identified 3 related goose groups and 7 independent breeds. Conclusion. All geese from the preserved gene pool have typical exterior features for each breed. Certain breed markers were stated to be the characteristic for the breeds of different pedigrees. These studies should be used for further breeding work in selecting producers in order to preserve and improve the geese gene pool.

Sources of the mitochondrial gene pool of Russians by the results of analysis of modern and paleogenomic data

Paleogenomic studies of recent years have shown that the Bronze Age migrations of populations of the PontoCaspian steppes from the east to the west of Europe had a great influence on the formation of the genetic makeup of modern Europeans. The results of studies of the variability of mitochondrial genomes in the modern Russian populations of Eastern Europe also made it possible to identify an increase in the effective population size during the Bronze Age, which, apparently, could be related to the migration processes of this time. This paper presents the results of analysis of data on the variability of entire mitochondrial genomes in the modern Russian populations in comparison with the distribution of mtDNA haplogroups in the ancient populations of Europe and the Caucasus of the Neolithic and Bronze Age. It was shown that the formation of the modern appearance of the Russian mitochondrial gene pool began approximately 4 thousand years B.C. due to the influx of mtDNA haplotypes characteristic of the population of Central and Western Europe to the east of Europe. It is assumed that the migrations of the ancient populations of the Ponto-Caspian steppes in the western direction led to the formation of mixed populations in Central Europe, bearing mitochondrial haplogroups H, J, T, K, W characteristic of Western and Central Europeans. Further expansion of these populations to the east of Europe and further to Asia explains the emergence of new features of the mitochondrial gene pool in Eastern Europeans. The results of a phylogeographic analysis are also presented, showing that the features of the geographical distribution of the subgroups of the mitochondrial haplogroup R1a in Europe are a reflection of the “Caucasian” component that appeared in the gene pools of various groups of Europeans during the migration of the Bronze Age. The results of phylogeographic analysis of mitochondrial haplogroups U2e2a1d, U4d2, N1a1a1a1, H2b, and H8b1 testify to the migrations of ancient Eastern Europeans to Asia – the south of Siberia and the Indian subcontinent.

Study of Allele Pool and Genetic Structure of Russian Population of Lowland-Caucasian Line of European Bison (Bison bonasus)

The allele pool and the genetic structure of the Bison bonasus population of the Lowland-Caucasian line, which is the breed nucleus of the Russian gene pool of European bison (n = 26) is studied. Eight of the ten microsatellite loci of Bos taurus were polymorphic. Alleles specific for the Lowland-Caucasian line are identified. A relatively high inbreeding level (FIS = 0.091) and an extremely low effective population size (Ne = 1.8, 95% CIs, Parametric 1.1–2.9) are observed. We show that two genetically distinct groups have taken part in the formation of the allele pool of the studied wisent population. Our data indicate that the development of a breeding program to decrease the degree of inbreeding and to increase the level of genetic diversity is required.

The macrohaplogroup U structure in Russians

The structure and diversity of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) macrohaplogroup U lineages in Russians from Eastern Europe are studied on the basis of analysis of variation of nucleotide sequences of complete mitochondrial genomes. In total, 132 mitochondrial genomes belonging to haplogroups U1, U2e, U3, U4, U5, U7, U8a, and K are characterized. Results of phylogeographic analysis show that the mitochondrial gene pool of Russians contains mtDNA haplotypes belonging to subhaplogroups that are characteristic only of Russians and other Eastern Slavs (13.7%), Slavs in general (11.4%), Slavs and Germans (17.4%), and Slavs, Germans, and Baltic Finns (9.8%). Results of molecular dating show that ages of mtDNA subhaplogroups to which Russian mtDNA haplotypes belong vary in a wide range, from 600 to 17000 years. However, molecular dating results for Slavic and Slavic-Germanic mtDNA subhaplogroups demonstrate that their formation mainly occurred in the Bronze and Iron Ages (1000–5000 years ago). Only some instances (for subhaplogroups U5b1a1 and U5b1e1a) are characterized by a good agreement between molecular dating results and the chronology of Slavic ethnic history based on historical and archaeological data.

Is there a Finno-Ugric component in the gene pool of Russians from Yaroslavl oblast? Evidence from Y-chromosome

The Upper Volga region was an area of contacts of Finno-Ugric, Slavic, and Scandinavian speaking populations in the 8th–10th centuries AD. However, their role in the formation of the contemporary gene pool of the Russian population of the region is largely unknown. To answer this question, we studied four populations of Yaroslavl oblast (N = 132) by a wide panel of STR and SNP markers of the Y-chromosome. Two of the studied populations appear to be genetically similar: the indigenous Russian population of Yaroslavl oblast and population of Katskari are characterized by the same major haplogroup, R-M198 (xM458). Haplogroup R-M458 composes more than half of Sitskari’s gene pool. The major haplogroup in the gene pool of the population of the ancient town of Mologa is N-M178. Subtyping N-M178 by newest “genomeera” Y-SNP markers showed different pathways of entering this haplogroup into the gene pools of Yaroslavl Volga region populations. The majority of Russian populations have subvariant N3a3-CTS10760; the regular sample of Yaroslavl oblast is equally represented by subvariants N3a3-CTS10760 and N3a4-Z1936, while subvariant N3a4-Z1936 predominates in the gene pool of population of Mologa. This N3a4-Z1936 haplogroup is common among the population of the north of Eastern Europe and the Volga-Ural region. The obtained results indicate preservation of the Finno-Ugric component in the gene pool of population of Mologa and a contribution of Slavic colonization in the formation of the gene pool of the Yaroslavl Volga region populations and make it possible to hypothesize the genetic contribution of the “downstream” (Rostov- Suzdal) rather than “upstream” (Novgorod) Slavic migration wave.

Genetic control of traits associated with phosphorus uptake in rice (Oryza sativa L.) varieties

The objectives of the current study were to identify the genetic material, which is characterized by a high growth rate and maximum root system size; to study the variability of Russian and foreign rice varieties for the markers associated with the genes, which determine efficient phosphorus utilization; to assess the possibility of using the simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers discussed in the current work for the introgression of the previously mapped genes; and to subdivide the donor samples identified in the Russian gene pool into groups characterized by a high probability of resistance development via different genetic mechanisms. The features which determine the intensity of the phosphorus uptake and their inheritance in rice varieties are discussed. We have studied the variability of the 72 rice varieties of Russian and foreign origin for the development rate of the root system and its size at maturity. The highest development rate of the root system was observed for the following varieties: Liman, Arborio, Dalnevostochnyi, Selenio, Oceano, Atlant, Musa, Fontan, Cerere, Sharm, Serpentine, Khankaiskii 52, Leader, Boyarin, and Druzhnyi. The samples of Russian origin were characterized by a higher growth rate than the Italian ones. The root weight at the stage of maturation varied from 1.5 to 4.5 g in different rice varieties, the maximum root weight being observed in the following varieties: Carnise, Rapan, Onix, and G-57. The root length varied from 17 to 26 cm with the highest length being displayed by the D 25-2, G 75-5, Ryzhik, G-52, Krepysh, and Snezhinka varieties. The variability observed in the Russian and foreign varieties for all the examined SSR loci associated with the genes controlling the phosphorus uptake showed that marker assistant selection may be carried out for this feature in the gene pool under study. The maximum allele number was detected for the RM 247 marker, localized on chromosome 12.

Genetic diversity in Swedish and Finnish heirloom apple cultivars revealed with SSR markers

A set of 85 heirloom apple cultivars aimed for long-term preservation in two germplasm collections in Sweden and Finland was evaluated with 8 SSR primer pairs to evaluate genetic diversity and genetic relatedness. An additional set of 16 European cultivars was included for comparison. The eight SSR primer pairs amplified 9 loci and 105 alleles. Genetic analyses performed by MDS indicated some differentiation between Swedish and Finnish cultivars, with European cultivars intermixed with the Swedish. The existence of three groups was, however, indicated by a Bayesian model-based clustering. One of the groups was clearly dominated by Swedish cultivars and another by Finnish. The third group included almost equal proportions of representatives from all three areas. The obtained results confirmed the genetic distinctness of Finnish apple cultivars, which can be explained by climate adaptation and admixture with a Russian gene pool.

The russian gene pool: the gene geography of Alu insertions (ACE, APOA1, B65, PV92, TPA25)

The analysis of five Alu insertion loci (ACE, AP4OA1, B65, PV92, TPA25) has been carried out for the first time in 10 Russian populations (1088 individuals), covered all parts of historical area of the Russian ethnos. Depending on locus, Russian populations exhibit similarity with their western (European populations) or with the eastern (populations of the Ural region) neighbors. Considering frequencies of the studied Alu-insertions, Russian gene pool exhibits low variation: average difference between populations is d = 0.007, whereas on classical markers, mtDNA and Y chromosome heterogeneity of Russian gene pool is essentially higher (0.013, 0.033 and 0.142 respectively). Therefore, this set of five Alu insertions has lower variability on the intra-ethnic level. However in inter-ethnic comparisons the clear pattern was obtained: 13 Eastern European ethnic groups formed three clusters, according with their historical and geographical position--East Slavic, Caucasian and South Ural clusters. The obtained data confirms efficiency of using Alu insertions for studying genetic differentiation and history of a gene pool of the Eastern European populations.

Mitochondrial DNA Variation in Two Russian Populations from Novgorod Oblast

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) polymorphism was examined in two Russian populations of Novgorod oblast, from the city of Velikii Novgorod (n = 81), and the settlement of Volot (n = 79). This analysis showed that the mitochondrial gene pool of Russians examined was represented by the mtDNA types belonging to 20 haplogroups and subhaplogroups distributed predominantly among the European populations. Haplogroups typical of the indigenous populations of Asia were found in the population sample from Velikii Novgorod with the average frequency of 3.7% (haplogroups A, Z, and D5), and with the frequency of 6.3% (haplogroups Z, D, and M*) in the Volot population. It was demonstrated that the frequency of the mitochondrial lineages combination, D5, Z, U5b-16144, and U8, typical of the Finnish-speaking populations of Northeastern Europe, was somewhat higher in the urban population (7.4%) compared to rural one (3.8%). The problem of genetic differentiation of Russians from Eastern Europe inferred from mtDNA data, is discussed.

Differentiation of Mitochondrial DNA and Y Chromosomes in Russian Populations

The genetic composition of the Russian population was investigated by analyzing both mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and Y-chromosome loci polymorphisms that allow for the different components of a population gene pool to be studied, depending on the mode of DNA marker inheritance. mtDNA sequence variation was examined by using hypervariable segment I (HVSI) sequencing and restriction analysis of the haplogroup-specific sites in 325 individuals representing 5 Russian populations from the European part of Russia. The Y-chromosome variation was investigated in 338 individuals from 8 Russian populations (including 5 populations analyzed for mtDNA variation) using 12 binary markers. For both uniparental systems most of the observed haplogroups fell into major West Eurasian haplogroups (97.9% and 99.7% for mtDNA and Y-chromosome haplogroups, respectively). Multidimensional scaling analysis based on pairwise F(ST) values between mtDNA HVSI sequences in Russians compared to other European populations revealed a considerable heterogeneity of Russian populations; populations from the southern and western parts of Russia are separated from eastern and northern populations. Meanwhile, the multidimensional scaling analysis based on Y-chromosome haplogroup F(ST) values demonstrates that the Russian gene pool is close to central-eastern European populations, with a much higher similarity to the Baltic and Finno-Ugric male pools from northern European Russia. This discrepancy in the depth of penetration of mtDNA and Y-chromosome lineages characteristic for the most southwestern Russian populations into the east and north of eastern Europe appears to indicate that Russian colonization of the northeastern territories might have been accomplished mainly by males rather than by females.

Mitochondrial DNA variation in Russian populations of Stavropol krai, Orel and Saratov oblasts

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) polymorphism was examined in three Russian populations from the European part of Russia (Stavropol krai, Orel oblast, and Saratov oblast). This analysis showed that mitochondrial gene pool of Russians was represented by the mtDNA types belonging to haplogroups H, V, HV*, J, T, U, K, I, W, and X. A mongoloid admixture (1.5%) was revealed in the form of mtDNA types of macrohaplogroup M. Comparative analysis of the mtDNA haplogroup frequency distribution patterns in six Russian populations from the European part of Russia indicated the absence of substantial genetic differences between them. However, in Russian populations from the southern and central regions the frequency of haplogroup V (average frequency 8%) was higher than in the populations from more northern regions. Based on the data on mtDNA HVS1 sequence variation, it was shown that the diversity of haplogroup V in Russians (h = 0.72) corresponded to the highest h values observed in Europe. The reasons for genetic differentiation of the Russian population (historical, ecological, and adaptive) are discussed.

The Russian Gene Pool: Gene Geography of Surnames

Surnames are traditionally used in population genetics as “quasi-genetic” markers (i.e., analogs of genes) when studying the structure of the gene pool and the factors of its microevolution. In this study, spatial variation of Russian surnames was analyzed with the use of computer-based gene geography. Gene geography of surnames was demonstrated to be promising for population studies on the total Russian gene pool. Frequencies of surnames were studied in 64 sel'sovets (rural communities; a total of 33 thousand persons) of 52 raions (districts) of 22 oblasts (regions) of the European part of Russia. For each of 75 widespread surnames, an electronic map of its frequency was constructed. Summary maps of principal components were drawn based on all maps of individual surnames. The first 5 of 75 principal components accounted for half of the total variance, which indicates high resolving power of surnames. The map of the first principal component exhibits a trend directed from the northwestern to the eastern regions of the area studied. The trend of the second component was directed from the southwestern to the northern regions of the area studied, i.e., it was close to latitudinal. This trend almost coincided with the latitudinal trend of principal components for three sets of data (genetic, anthropological, and dermatoglyphical). Therefore, the latitudinal trend may be considered the main direction of variation of the Russian gene pool. The similarity between the main scenarios for the genetic and quasi-genetic markers demonstrates the effectiveness of the use of surnames for analysis of the Russian gene pool. In view of the dispute between R. Sokal and L.L. Cavalli-Sforza about the effects of false correlations, the maps of principal components of Russian surnames were constructed by two methods: through analysis of maps and through direct analysis of original data on the frequencies of surnames. An almost complete coincidence of these maps (correlation coefficient ρ = 0.96) indicates that, taking into account the reliability of the data, the resultant maps of principal components have no errors of false correlations.

The Russian gene pool. Frequency of genetic markers

Frequency distribution of several genetic markers was studied in ethnic Russians from the Moscow, Bryansk, Ryazan', Kostroma, Novgorod, Arkhangel'sk, and Sverdlovsk oblasts and Udmurtiya. Systems AB0, RH, HP, TF, GC, PI, C'3, ACP1, PGM1, ESD, GLO1, 6PGD, and AK were analyzed in most samples. New data on informative polymorphic genetic loci showed that the Russian gene pool mostly displays Caucasoid features. In addition, Y-chromosomal short tandem repeats (STRs) DYS19, DYS390, and YCAII were analyzed in the Russian samples. STRs of the chromosome are particularly valuable for elucidating ethnogenetic processes in Eastern Europe. Frequency distributions of the Y-chromosomal markers in Russians were intermediate between those of West European populations and eastern Finno-Ugric ethnoses of the Volga region. A marked longitudinal gradient was revealed for frequencies of several molecular markers.

The Russian Gene Pool: Gene Geography of Serum Gene Markers (HP,GC,PI, and TF)

The study continues the series of works on the Russian gene pool. Gene geographic analysis of four serum gene markers best studied in the Russian population (HP, GC, PI, and TF) has been performed. Gene-geographic electronic maps have been constructed for 14 alleles of these loci and their correlations with geographic latitude and longitude. For all maps, statistical characteristics are presented, including the variation range and mean gene frequencies, partial and multiple correlations with latitude and longitude, and parameters of heterozygosity and interpopulation diversity. The maps of five alleles (HP*1, GC*2, GC*1S, PI*M2, and TF*C2) are shown and analyzed in detail. The genetic relief and structural elements of the maps are compared with the ecumenical trends, main variation patterns of these genes in northern Eurasia, and genetic characteristics of the indigenous populations of the Urals and Europe.

The Russian Gene Pool: Gene Geography of Erythrocytic Gene Markers ( ACP1 , PGM1 , ESD , GLO1 , and 6-PGD )

The study continues the series of works on the Russian gene pool. Gene geographic analysis of five erythrocytic gene markers best studied in the Russian population (ACP1, PGM1, ESD, GLO1, and6-PGD) has been performed. Gene-geographic electronic maps have been constructed for 13 alleles of these loci and their correlations with geographic latitude and longitude. For all maps, statistical characteristics are presented, including the variation range and mean gene frequencies, partial and multiple correlations with latitude and longitude, and parameters of heterozygosity and interpopulation diversity. The maps of eight alleles (ACP1*A, ACP1*C, PGM1*2+, PGM1*2–, PGM1*1–, ESD*1, GLO1*1, and PGD*C) are shown and analyzed in detail. The genetic relief and structural elements of the maps are compared with the ecumenical trends, main variation patterns of these genes in northern Eurasia, and genetic characteristics of the indigenous populations of the Urals and Europe.