Role Of Gender Differences Research Articles

Mothers' and fathers' involvement with school-age children's care and academic activities in Navajo Indian families.

This exploratory study examined mothers' and fathers' reports of time involvement in their school-age children's care and academic activities. The study also explored the relationship between parents' socioeconomic status (SES) variables (age, education, income, work hours, and length of marriage) and their relative involvement with children. Mother and father dyads from 34 two-parent Navajo (Diné) Indian families with a second- or third-grade child participated in the study. Repeated measures analysis of variance showed that mothers invested significantly more time in children's care on demand and academic activities than fathers, but the differences in maternal and paternal perceptions of time involvement in routine care were not significant. The gender of the child did not influence the amount of time parents invested in children's care and academic activities. Mothers' involvement with children was not related to any of the SES variables. Fathers' involvement was significantly associated with work hours and length of marriage, and work hours produced significant interaction with fathers' involvement with children. Findings are discussed in light of gender role differences in parental involvement with children within Navajo families.

The value of monogamy in emerging adulthood: A gendered perspective

Gender and gender role differences in the valuing of monogamy were examined using a sample of emerging adults currently in heterosexual dating relationships. Monogamy attitudes were measured on four dimensions: valuing emotional monogamy, valuing sexual monogamy, perceptions of monogamy as relationship-enhancing, and perceptions of monogamy as a sacrifice. Gender differences emerged, with women valuing both emotional and sexual monogamy more strongly than men. While both men and women viewed monogamy as relationship enhancing, men were more likely to view monogamy as a sacrifice. Individuals with gender roles defined by communal traits valued monogamy more highly. Each of the monogamy dimensions was significantly correlated with reported relationship satisfaction. Findings are interpreted from evolutionary and social constructionist perspectives.

The effect of social relationships on survival in elderly residents of a Southern European community: a cohort study

BackgroundComparative evidence regarding the effects of social relationships on mortality in Mediterranean communities will increase our knowledge of their strengths and the ways in which they influence longevity across cultures. Men and women may benefit differently from social relationships because of cultural differences in gender roles. Psychosocial mechanisms such as social support, which may explain the effects of social networks, may also vary by culture.MethodsDetailed information on the social relationships of a representative sample of 1,174 community-dwelling older adults was collected in Leganés, a city in central Spain. Mortality over a 6-year follow-up period was ascertained. Information on socio-demographic, health and disability variables was also collected. Cox proportional hazards models were fitted separately for men and women and for the combined sample.ResultsHaving a confidant was associated with a 25% (95% CI 5–40%) reduction in the mortality risk. The hazard ratio for lack of social participation was 1.5 (95% CI 1.3–1.7). Being engaged in meaningful roles protected against mortality, while receipt of emotional support did not affect survival. These results were comparable for men and women. Having contact with all family ties was associated with reduced mortality only in men. Structural aspects of social networks make a unique contribution to survival, independently of emotional support and the role played in the lives of significant others.ConclusionIn this elderly Southern European population, the beneficial effects of social networks, social participation, engagement in the life of significant others and having a confidant call for public policies that foster intergenerational and community exchanges.

The role of gender differences in beta-adrenergic receptor responsiveness of diabetic rat heart

Since the mechanisms responsible for gender differences in cardiac contractile function have not been fully elucidated, we focused to determine the effect of gender difference on beta-adrenergic receptors (beta-ARs) signal transduction in ventricular cardiomyocytes from insulin-dependent diabetic (streptozotocin-induced) rats. Dose-response curves of left ventricular developed pressure (LVDP) to isoproterenol (ISO) in females showed that there was only a approximately 30% decrease in the maximum response without a significant shift in EC50 in diabetic females. On the other hand, diabetes induced a clear rightward shift in the potency (5-10 folds) without a significant change in the maximum response in the males. In order to further determine of the underlying mechanism for this difference, we measured cAMP production and obtained dose-response curves with ISO stimulation in isolated cardiomyocytes. In diabetic females, there was no obvious change in the cAMP dose-response curve. On the other hand, there was a significant decrease in the maximum response without any apparent change in the potency of diabetic males. Our findings indicate that male and female rats are affected differently by diabetes in terms of LVDP responses to beta-ARs stimulation. Also, the difference between their beta-ARs induced cAMP responses may underlie this disparity.

Looking Beyond Nativity: The Relation of Age of Immigration, Length of Residence, and Birth Cohorts to the Risk of Onset of Psychiatric Disorders for Latinos

Past studies have yielded inconsistent results regarding risk of psychopathology for U.S. Latinos by nativity possibly due to differences across immigrants in their age of arrival to the United States, their length of residence in the United States, or birth-cohort differences. In this article, we seek to document the relation of age of arrival, time in the United States, and cohort effects on the risk of onset of psychiatric disorders using a nationally representative sample of 2,554 Latinos in the coterminous United States. We assessed risk of onset of psychiatric disorders using the World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview (Kessler & Us-tun, 2004). Findings indicate that Latino immigrants have lower risks of onset for some psychiatric disorders in their country of origin, but once in the United States, Latino immigrants appear to experience similar risks of onset as U.S.-born Latinos of the same age. The longer Latino immigrants remain in their country of origin, the less cumulative risk of onset they experience, resulting in lower lifetime rates of disorders. These findings could potentially be due to variation in cultural and social norms and expectations across geographical contexts, differences in family structure and gender roles, as well as artifactual-level explanations.

Reply to "Embodied Rhythm" by Bruno Repp and "Do Preferred Beat Rate and Entrainment to the Beat Have a Common Origin in Movement?" by Laurel Trainor

Two leading issues raised in commentaries on the authors' earlier article (2007) involved the possible roles of gender differences and the vestibular system on test results. Those issues are discussed in this reply.

Tropical parasitic diseases and women

Tropical parasitic diseases constitute the greatest threat to the health and socio-economic status of women as a gender and social group. There are some gender specific ways in which parasitic diseases affect women in contrast to men due to differences in exposure, occupational risk, sociocultural behavior, gender roles and practices. These parasitic diseases confer some social stigma, which affects the health seeking behavior of women. Women are therefore important in the control of these parasitic diseases and they are key agents of change, if they are included in community control programs. Women need more attention in endemic areas as a group that had been neglected. This deprived and excluded group have got vital role to play, as discussed in this review.

The Role of Gender Differences and Other Client Characteristics in the Prevalence of DSM-IV Affective Disorders Among a European Therapeutic Community Population

There is a lack of research illustrating the extent of psychiatric problems in European TCs. Furthermore, there is a need to obtain more insight into gender differences concerning comorbidity in the TC population. In an attempt to respond to previous shortcomings, three specific goals were formulated for the current study. The primary aim was to explore the lifetime prevalence of affective disorders in European TC clients. The second aim was to focus on related gender differences. And finally, client characteristics measured by the EuropASI were related to mood and anxiety disorders measured by the SCID-I. Nine out of ten substance abusers treated in a European TC program have an affective disorder. Gender differences are noted for two anxiety disorders: men have more obsessive-compulsive disorders; women have more post-traumatic stress disorders. The study illustrates that not only gender but also other client characteristics should be taken into account when organizing treatment.

Orchiectomy Attenuates Post-ischemic Oxidative Stress and Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury in Mice: A ROLE FOR MANGANESE SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE

Males are much more susceptible to ischemia/reperfusion (I/R)-induced kidney injury when compared with females. Recently we reported that the presence of testosterone, rather than the absence of estrogen, plays a critical role in gender differences in kidney susceptibility to I/R injury in mice. Although reactive oxygen species and antioxidant defenses have been implicated in I/R injury, their roles remain to be defined. Here we report that the orchiectomized animal had significantly less lipid peroxidation and lower hydrogen peroxide levels in the kidney 4 and 24 h after 30 min of bilateral renal ischemia when compared with intact or dihydrotestosterone-treated orchiectomized males. The post-ischemic kidney expression and activity of manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) in orchiectomized mice was much greater than in intact or dihydrotestosterone-administered orchiectomized mice. Four hours after 30 min of bilateral ischemia, superoxide formation was significantly lower in orchiectomized mice than in intact mice. In Madin-Darby canine kidney cells, a kidney epithelial cell line, 1 mm H(2)O(2) decreased MnSOD activity, an effect that was potentiated by pretreatment with dihydrotestosterone. Orchiectomy prevented the post-ischemic decrease of catalase activity. Treatment of male mice with manganese(III) tetrakis(1-methyl-4-pyridyl)porphyrin (MnTMPyP), a SOD mimetic, reduced the post-ischemic increase of plasma creatinine, lipid peroxidation, and tissue hydrogen peroxide. These results suggest that orchiectomy accelerates the post-ischemic activation of MnSOD and reduces reactive oxygen species and lipid peroxidation, resulting in reduced kidney susceptibility to I/R injury.

Gender differences in role of alcohol in fatal injury events

The aim was to investigate the differences in alcohol involvement in fatal injury events between females and males. Information was obtained from the Forensic Medicine Database and the Forensic Toxicology Database of the National Board of Forensic Medicine, and from the inpatient register of the National Board of Health and Welfare. Alcohol was regarded to be involved in the injury event: if there was any indication that the deceased was a 'known alcoholic'; if the underlying or contributing causes of death were alcohol-related; if the deceased had alcohol-related inpatient diagnosis during a 3-year period prior to death; or if the deceased tested positive for blood alcohol at autopsy. All injured cases who underwent medico-legal autopsies (1992-1996) in Sweden were analysed (4471 females and 11 156 males). Compared to males, females died more often (P < 0.05) in intentional injury events (48.0% females, 44.2% males), were less often (P < 0.001) blood alcohol-positive (29% females, 43% males), had lower (P < 0.05) blood alcohol concentrations (0.17% in females, 0.18% in males), and were less likely (P < 0.001) to have an alcohol-related history (18.4% females, 24.4% males). For females, intentional deaths (31.4%) were significantly (P < 0.001) more often alcohol-related than unintentional deaths (22.9%). A significantly (P < 0.001) higher proportion of deaths in males (48.4%) were alcohol-related compared to females (32.9%). Almost every third injury event in females and in almost every other event in males is alcohol-related, showing that alcohol plays an important part in fatal injuries in females even though it is mostly a male problem.

Gender Role Orientation in Turkish Female Athletes and Non-Athletes

The purpose of this study was to compare gender role orientation and classification of elite female athletes aged between 18 to 30 years with age-matched female non-athletes in Turkey. Additionally, gender role differences with regard to types of sport in elite female athletes were examined. In this study 306 elite female athletes (Mage = 22.17 ± 2.51) and 264 female non-athletes (Mage = 21.34 ± 3.14) were participants of this study. Female athletes were selected from feminine sports; ballet dancing, aerobic dance, swimming, ice skating, tennis, volleyball (n = 70), from masculine sports; basketball, handball, soccer, wrestling, weight lifting, taekwando, karate, judo (n = 127), and from gender-neutral sports; track and field, shot putting and javelin throwing (n = 109). The Bern Sex Role Inventory was administered to assess the gender role orientations of participants. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) showed that there were significant differences in gender role orientation between elite female athletes from different types of sport and female non-athletes (Hotelling’s T2 = 0.145; F(6,112) = 13.63; p&lt;.01). In a follow-up univariate analysis, a significant difference in masculinity (F(3,569) = 26.07; p&lt;.01) scores between female athletes from different types of sport and female non-athletes were observed. In addition, a chi square analysis showed a significant difference in gender role classifications between elite female athletes from different types of sport and female non-athletes (X2 = 68.22; p&lt;. 01). Based on these findings it was concluded that there were significant differences in gender role orientations between Turkish elite female athletes and nonathletes.

Culture, gender, organizational role, and styles of conflict resolution: A meta-analysis

The popularity of self-report five-style conflict resolution instruments, spawned by Blake and Mouton's [(1964). The managerial grid. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing] dual concerns theory, resulted in a plethora of research studies examining possible differences in culture, gender and organizational role. Using the Managerial Grid, dual concerns theory postulates that conflict involves balancing the desire to meet production goals ( x) versus concern for personal relationships ( y). Five styles of managing conflict are then revealed: smoothing, withdrawing, compromising, problem-solving, and forcing. Numerous studies using instruments derived from this theory validate its basic premises, but results have provided confusing results. Given the disparity of results, a meta-analysis was conducted to provide a clearer overall picture for the variables of culture (individualistic versus collectivistic), gender, and organizational role (superior, subordinate, and peer). Based upon 123 paired comparisons within 36 empirical studies, the results of the meta-analysis indicate: (1) individualistic cultures choose forcing as a conflict style more than collectivistic cultures; (2) collectivistic cultures prefer the styles of withdrawing, compromising, and problem-solving more than individualistic cultures; (3) in individualistic cultures, compromising is endorsed more frequently by females; (4) females are more likely to endorse the use of compromising than males, regardless of culture; (5) males are more likely to report using forcing than females in individualistic cultures; and (6) with regard to organizational role, males are more likely than females to choose a forcing style with their superiors. Further research is needed, particularly on the variable of cultural status.

Orchiectomy reduces susceptibility to renal ischemic injury: a role for heat shock proteins

In previous studies we demonstrated that the presence of testosterone, rather than the absence of estrogen, plays a critical role in gender differences in kidney ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. Although molecular chaperones such as heat shock proteins (HSPs) have been implicated as protective agents in the pathophysiology of I/R injury, their roles in gender differences in susceptibility to renal I/R injury remain to be defined. Here we demonstrate that orchiectomy increases the basal and post-ischemic expression of HSP-27 in kidney tubular epithelial cells, but not HSP-72, glucose-regulated protein (GRP)-78 or GRP-94 expression. Orchiectomy prevents the disruption of the actin cytoskeleton and renal functional disorders induced by I/R, when compared with intact male mice or orchiectomized mice treated with dihydrotestosterone, a non-aromatizable isoform of testosterone. Thus, the protection afforded by orchiectomy is associated with increased expression of HSP-27, a heat shock protein important for maintenance of actin cytoskeletal integrity. These findings indicate that testosterone inhibits the heat shock response and may provide a new paradigm for design of therapies for I/R injury.

The Gender Pay Gap by Occupation: A Test of the Crowding Hypothesis

Identified, structural wage equations for seven occupations are estimated to test the crowding hypothesis—that the gender pay gap is due to females being crowded into low‐paying occupations—using data drawn from the 1996 wave of the National Longitudinal Study of Youth (NLSY79). Occupational preferences are used to estimate a logit probability model of occupational assignment to create instruments to control for self‐selection. Wage equations are estimated for all workers and for full‐time, year‐round workers. Identical specifications are estimated for private‐sector workers. The results are not consistent with a crowding explanation as the sole source of the gender pay gap unless crowding occurs at less aggregated levels of occupations than those used for this study. (JEL J16, J31, J71)

Testosterone Is Responsible for Enhanced Susceptibility of Males to Ischemic Renal Injury

Female mice are much more resistant to ischemia/reperfusion (I/R)-induced kidney injury when compared with males. Although estrogen administration can partially reduce kidney injury associated with I/R, we demonstrated that the presence of testosterone, more than the absence of estrogen, plays a critical role in gender differences in susceptibility of the kidney to ischemic injury. Testosterone administration to females increases kidney susceptibility to ischemia. Dihydrotestosterone, which can not be aromatized to estrogen, has effects equal to those of testosterone. Castration reduces the I/R-induced kidney injury. In contrast, ovariectomy does not affect kidney injury induced by ischemia in females. Testosterone reduces ischemia-induced activation of nitric oxide synthases (NOSs) and Akt and the ratio of extracellular signal related kinase (ERK) to c-jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) phosphorylation. Pharmacological (Nomega-nitro-L-arginine) or genetic (endothelial NOS or inducible NOS) inhibition of NOSs in females enhances kidney susceptibility to ischemia. Nitric oxide increases Akt phosphorylation and protects Madin-Darby canine kidney epithelial cells from oxidant stress. Antagonists of androgen or estrogen receptors do not affect the gender differences. In conclusion, testosterone inhibits the post-ischemic activation of NOSs and Akt and the ratio of ERK to JNK phosphorylation through non-androgen receptor-medicated mechanisms, leading to increased inflammation and increased functional injury to the kidney. These findings provide a new paradigm for the design of therapies for ischemia/reperfusion injury and may be important to our understanding of the pathophysiology of acute renal failure in pregnancy where plasma androgen levels are elevated.

An Examination of Gender Differences in Adolescent Adjustment: The Effect of Competence on Gender Role Differences in Symptoms of Psychopathology

Numerous studies have documented gender differences in psychopathology; girls generally report more internalizing symptoms and boys generally report more externalizing symptoms. These gender differences are partially accounted for by the gender-typed personality characteristics of boys and girls. This study was designed to investigate how gender roles influence symptoms of psychopathology by examining the mediating effects of self- and peer-rated competencies. Using a multiple regression approach to path analysis with a sample of primarily White, middle-class high school students, gender roles significantly predicted symptoms of psychopathology and mediated the gender differences in those symptoms. In addition, the adolescents' self- and peer-rated competence in various domains helped to explain the effect of gender roles on symptoms of psychopathology. Specifically, self-rated social attractiveness and global self-worth fully mediated the relation between instrumentality (i.e., masculinity) and internalizing symptoms. Global self-worth and both self- and peer-rated achievement/conduct partially mediated the relation between expressivity (i.e., femininity) and externalizing symptoms. Practical and theoretical implications are discussed.

Wo Mann sich traut – Heiratsentscheidungen westdeutscher Männer im räumlichen Kontext

This paper studies the relationship between characteristics of men's place of residence and the probability of entering marriage in western Germany during the 1980s and 1990s. We link micro-information from the German Socio-Economic Panel Study (GSOEP) with district-level data to estimate discrete-time multilevel logit models. Our multivariate results stress the importance of men's individual economic status in marital decisions. They furthermore indicate a negative relationship between women's aggregate labour force participation and male transition rates to marriage, which could be interpreted as evidence for the popular >economic independence hypothesis< of marital behaviour. Complementary, we put forward an interpretation of female employment rates as indicators of regional differences in gender roles and individuals' autonomy. Our findings, which include a significant latent contextual effect, suggest that a man's propensity to marry is influenced by the regional socio-cultural milieu he lives in.

SLAVERY, FREEDOM, AND SEN

Amartya Sen's Development as Freedom argues that the ability to make choices is fundamental to economic development, and that the evaluation of outcomes can provide misleading answers. He uses the example of the high material consumption of US slaves relative to some free whites to illustrate this contrast. This paper discusses some of the implications of such comparisons and the problem of evaluating what might be regarded as favorable outcomes which come from unfavorable institutions (e.g., slavery). It appears that all good things do not necessarily go together. The past relation of enslavement to the need for subsistence is discussed. Differences in gender roles under slavery and after emancipation are also examined.

School Social Context Effects on Gender Differences in Academic Achievement Among Second-Generation Latinos

This study considers involuntary minority concentration effects on gender differences in achievement and finds increasing levels of involuntary minority enrollments decrease grade point averages and math scores for immigrant boys versus girls, net of individual and school socioeconomic status. Immigrant achievement declines in involuntary minority schools where a climate of apathy and failure inhibits performance. Yet, differences in gender roles and socialization renders girls less vulnerable to assimilation of adversarial attitudes and behaviors responsible for academic failure.

Gender Role Development in Japanese Culture: Diminishing Gender Role Differences in a Contemporary Society

This paper presents the development of the Japanese Gender Role Index (JGRI) and Japanese men's and women's self-ratings on the scale. Two hundred ninety-six Japanese words that describe masculine and feminine characteristics were gathered. Examination of endorsements by 200 Japanese participants indicated 66 items as socially desirable characteristics for either men or women in the society. The validation process, including social desirability ratings, factor analysis, and confirmatory factor analysis, identified 2 subscales with 10 items for each. Internal consistency and the means and standard deviations of social desirability ratings for the subscales were also examined. Self-ratings on the JGRI by 423 Japanese participants showed that there was no significant difference between men and women on feminine and masculine characteristics. It was also found that both men and women possessed an equivalent amount of masculine and feminine characteristics.