Gender Measurement Invariance Research Articles

Psychometric Properties and Gender Invariance of the Portuguese (European) Version of the Aging Sexual Knowledge and Attitudes Scale.

The sexuality of older people was understood as non-existent or as something outside the prevailing norm. In this sense, analysing people's sexual knowledge and attitudes towards older people is a challenge for theory and practice. The aim of this study is to translate and validate the Aging Sexual Knowledge and Attitudes Scale (ASKAS) for the Portuguese population. A sample of 994 Portuguese adults (70.9% women, n = 705) completed the ASKAS-PT along with a series of self-report measures. Confirmatory factor analysis and the psychometric properties of the Portuguese (European) version of ASKAS-PT were investigated, particularly reliability, temporal stability, and convergent and critical validity. This study also examined the gender measurement invariance of the ASKAS-PT. After confirmatory factor analysis, a two-factor model fit the Portuguese version best. Reliability and validity results also showed good results, and the ASKAS-PT appears to be a gender-invariant measure. Overall, the Portuguese version of the ASKAS showed good psychometric properties and appears to be a valid and reliable measure for assessing knowledge and attitudes about aging.

Online prosocial behavior during adolescence in Belgium, Japan, Peru, and Spain: Cross-national and gender invariance and differences in four countries

ABSTRACT The role of the digital context in the development and expression of prosocial behaviors during adolescence has not yet been addressed using validated instruments in different languages. This study examines the factorial validity of the Online Prosocial Behavior Scale (OPBS) in adolescents from four different countries (Belgium N = 1714, Japan N = 1207, Peru N = 1478, Spain N = 1299) and assesses the factorial and gender invariance and differences in them. A multigroup confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) sequence was performed to test the factorial and gender invariance. The results indicate that the two-factor structure of the OPBS fits well across the full sample in each country and in the gender groups. Cross-national and gender measurement invariance was established for this instrument. Peruvian adolescents showed the highest frequency of online prosocial behaviors, both performed and received, while Japanese adolescents showed the lowest frequency. In all the countries studied, girls showed a higher frequency of online prosocial behaviors than boys. The limitations of this instrument and future lines of research in this field are discussed.

The Depression Anxiety Stress Scales for Youth (DASS-Y): evidence of validity and cross-national and gender measurement invariance.

The Depression Anxiety Stress Scales for Youth (DASS-Y) is a recently developed measure of unpleasant emotional experiences for children and adolescents; however, the evidence for its validity is still limited. The present study evaluated the evidence for the structural, convergent, and incremental validity of the DASS-Y on a sample of Serbian adolescents aged 15-19 years (N = 421; 48% female, mean age = 16.86). Measurement invariance across gender and two countries (Serbia and Australia) was also tested. The findings supported the bifactor exploratory structural equation modeling (bifactor-ESEM) representation of the DASS-Y, which includes the General factor of negative affect/emotional distress, and three specific factors of Depression, Anxiety, and Stress. The DASS-Y factors showed evidence of incremental validity in predicting global externalizing symptoms and demonstrated convergent validity in relation to measures of global internalizing and externalizing symptoms as well as subjective well-being. The bifactor-ESEM model of the DASS-Y was found to be invariant across gender and two countries. The present study findings highlight the importance of distinguishing between general and specific components of unpleasant emotional states.

Assessing the dimensionality of the sense of coherence scale (SOC-L9) using Ghanaian university students: Guarding against the method effect

BackgroundThe dimensionality of the sense of coherence (SOC-L9) scale has been in contention due to the varied factor structure revealed in the literature. In this study, we assessed the dimensionality of the SOC-L9 scale using Ghanaian university students while guarding against the method effect. The study also examined the gender measurement invariance of the scale. MethodsThis research conveniently sampled 1062 students who responded to the SOC-L9 scale with negative items reversed to positive items. A larger proportion of the participants were male students (n = 769, 72.4 %), with 293(27.6 %) being female students. The youngest participant was 18 years old, whereas the oldest was 42 years old. Following all validation studies protocols, four distinct confirmatory factor analysis models were fitted and compared (i.e., unidimensional, three-factor first-order, three-factor second-order and bifactor models). ResultsThe initial model comparison revealed that the bifactor CFA model [CFI = 0.958, SRMR = 0.036, AIC = 21231.35, BIC = 21370.45] was superior to the unidimensional [CFI = 0.914, SRMR = 0.046, AIC = 26280.67, BIC = 26414.8] and 3-factor models [CFI = 0.932, SRMR = 0.040, AIC = 26221.67, BIC = 26370.71]. Upon further probing, it was discovered that SOC-L9 functions best as a unidimensional scale for the university student population. Gender measurement invariance was established for configural invariance [CFI = 0.986, SRMR = 0.044], metric invariance [CFI = 0.894, SRMR = 0.051] and scalar invariance [CFI = 0.983, SRMR = 0.047]. ConclusionThe SOC-L9 scale has a nested structure with the various sub-scales interacting to produce a summary total observed score. The structure of the SOC-L9 requires scholars to treat the scale as a unidimensional scale rather than a multidimensional one. This latent structure was found to be consistent with male and female university students.

The reliability and validity of the brief measures of perceived childhood harshness and unpredictability: A revised Chinese version for emerging adults

BackgroundChildhood harshness and unpredictability significantly shape life history strategies, as well as downstream psychological and behavioral patterns. However, prior research involving Chinese populations has suffered from inconsistent metrics and limited measurement items. ObjectiveWe adapted the English version of Maranges et al.'s (2022) Harshness and Unpredictability Scale in Childhood, translating it into Chinese and assessing its reliability and validity. Participants and settingSix groups of different college student samples have been collected and the Chinese version of the Harshness and Unpredictability scales has been revised in two separate studies. MethodsWe evaluated the factor structure using both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, determined internal consistency, item discrimination, concurrent validity, and assessed gender measurement invariance through multiple CFAs. The test-retest reliability was subsequently established by assessing participants after a designated interval. ResultsBoth scales passed psychometric tests, including exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, and exhibited strong internal consistency and item discrimination. Gender invariance in the measurements was also confirmed. ConclusionsThe Chinese version of the Childhood Harshness and Unpredictability Scale demonstrates high reliability and validity, making it suitable for deeper examinations into the relationship between early environments and life history strategies in Chinese contexts.

Montreal Cognitive Assessment test: Psychometric analysis of a South African workplace sample

The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) test is a widely used tool to screen for mild neurocognitive impairment. However, its structural validity has not been fully described in South Africa. The study aimed to replicate and extend earlier work with South African samples, to provide an expanded description of the psychometric properties of the MoCA. The study examined the MoCA in a sample of neurocognitively healthy working adults (N = 402) and individuals diagnosed with mild neurocognitive disorders (N = 42); both groups reported good English proficiency. Analysis included general scale descriptions, and structural and discriminant validity. Age and language, but not gender, influenced MoCA scores, with mean total scores of healthy individuals falling below the universal cut-off. Structural analysis showed that a multidimensional model with a higher-order general factor fit the data well, and measurement invariance for gender and language was confirmed. Discriminant validity was supported, and receiver operating characteristics curve analysis illustrated the potential for grey-zone lower and upper thresholds to identify risk.Contribution: This study replicated previous findings on the effects of age, language and gender, and challenged the universal application of ≤ 26 as cut-off for cognitive impairment indiscriminately across groups or contexts. It emphasised the need for context-specific adaptation in cognitive assessments, especially for non-English first language speakers, to enhance practical utility. Novel to this study, it extended knowledge on the structural validity of the test and introduced grey-zone scores as a potential guide to the identification of risk in resource-restricted settings.

Longitudinal and Gender Measurement Invariance of the General Health Questionnaire-12 (GHQ-12) From Adolescence to Emerging Adulthood.

Psychological distress often onsets during adolescence, necessitating an accurate understanding of its development. Assessing change in distress is based on the seldom examined premise of longitudinal measurement invariance (MI). Thus, we used three waves of data from Next Steps, a representative cohort of young people in the UK (N = 13,539) to examine MI of the General Health Questionnaire-12 (GHQ-12). We examined MI across time and gender from ages 15 to 25 in four competing latent models: (a) a single-factor model, (b) a three-factor correlated model, (c) a bifactor model of "general distress" and two orthogonal specific factors capturing positive and negative wording, and (d) a single-factor model including error covariances of negatively phrased items. We also tested acceptability of assumptions underlying sum score models. For all factor models, residual MI was confirmed from ages 15 to 25 years and across gender. The bifactor model had the best fit. While sum score model fit was not unequivocally acceptable, most mean differences across time and gender were equivalent across sum scores and latent difference scores. Thus, GHQ-12 sum scores may be used to assess change in psychological distress in young people. However, latent scores appear more accurate, and model fit can be improved by accounting for item wording.

PERMA-Profiler for adolescents: validity evidence based on internal structure and related constructs.

The PERMA model of well-being has gained prominence in the study of well-being by the Positive Psychology movement. However, the model has been little studied regarding its applicability in different populations, such as adolescents. This study sought to evaluate the psychometric properties of the PERMA-Profiler instrument for Brazilian adolescents, as well as the measurement invariance for different age groups and gender, and investigate the relation with external variables. Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Multigroup Confirmatory Factor Analysis were used to test the internal structure and invariance of the PERMA-Profiler. Reliability was determined with McDonald's Omega and composite reliability. A total of 1,197 adolescents between 11 and 19 years old from different regions of Brazil participated. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the five correlated factors model was the most appropriate, presenting good factor loadings and adequate reliability. The scale proved to be invariant for adolescents of different age groups and gender. Correlations with associated variables were significant and moderate to strong, showing positive relations between positive emotions and well-being, and negative relations with negative affects and depressive and anxiety symptoms. These results contribute to the understanding of well-being in adolescence and highlight the importance of promoting different components of well-being for adolescents' mental health.

Psychometric properties and measurement invariance of the Multidimensional Psychological Flexibility Inventory- Persian (MPFI-P): An extensive investigation of long and short versions in community and clinical samples

Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) is evidence-based, transdiagnostic psychotherapy that seeks to increase values-consistent behavior and advances mental health by promoting psychological flexibility (PF) and diminishing psychological inflexibility (PI). PF implies a person's ability to cope with, accept, and adjust to challenging circumstances, whereas PI denotes the inflexible dominance of psychological responses in steering behavior over selected values and contingencies. The Multidimensional Psychological Flexibility Inventories (MPFI-60-24) have been established to cover all six factors of PF and six factors of PI at once. Still, these measures have yet to be validated in a Persian sample and this study seeks to validate the Persian versions of MPFI. We evaluated long and short versions of the MPFI in a Persian sample of 1270 (83% females, ages 18 through 57), divided into two groups, a healthy community group (n = 886) and a clinical group (n = 391). The MPFIs' psychometric properties, including criterion validity, construct validity, internal consistency, and measurement invariance, were investigated. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) revealed that a 12-factor model had a good fit to the data for the long version (CFI = .92) and a very good fit (CFI = .98) for the short version. Regarding higher-order models, two-factor second-order model indices for long-form were adequate (CFI = .92), and for short-form, they were good (CFI = .96). All 12 subscales demonstrated sufficient reliability. Measurement invariance for gender and mental health state was observed, as well as good internal consistency and adequate criterion validity with psychological distress markers (i.e., depression, anxiety, and stress). PI was more strongly related to psychological distress than PF. Persian versions of the MPFI are reliable instruments for indexing PF and PI in both genders as well as in community and clinical samples.

Proposal of standards for Reading Comprehension Multidimensional Battery

The main aim of this research was to establish preliminary standards for the Self-Regulation for Reading Comprehension Multidimensional Battery (BAMA-Reading), consisting of nine scales. The study sample comprised 910 Middle School students from Brazilian public schools. Norms for the BAMA-Reading scales, which have a Likert-type response format, were established based on percentiles, with the sample classified into four subgroups divided by gender, repetition history, and school year. For the EAC-CL (Educational Assessment Battery for Reading Comprehension and Learning), whose response format differs from the other scales in the battery, separate standards were established. It was found that not all scales in the battery demonstrated measurement invariance for gender, repetition history, and school year. Variances were identified in the EAC-CL concerning these variables. The results suggest caution when applying group comparison analyses in BAMA-Reading. Future studies on the battery should involve new samples and employ advanced statistical techniques to establish more definitive standards.

Measuring safety perceptions of students with behavioural problems in special education: A validation study of the safe at school questionnaire

AbstractAssessment and monitoring of safety in special education schools is imperative to establish and maintain a safe environment in which students can develop academic and social–emotional skills. The present study describes the development of a student self‐report measure, the Safe at School questionnaire. Factorial validity, reliability and concurrent validity was examined in a construction sample of 280 students (68.6% male, age M = 13.29, SD = 2.52) and a validation sample of 1572 students (77.4% male; age M = 14.33, SD = 2.04), representing 233 classes from 20 schools for special education in the Netherlands. Multilevel confirmatory factor analysis was used to examine the factor structure of the Safe at School questionnaire. A model with three correlating factors at the within‐ and between‐group level (Rules and Social Norms, Perceived Own Safety and Perceived Safety of Other Students) showed a satisfactory fit to the data. Reliabilities of the scales were good. Also, measurement invariance for gender was demonstrated, indicating no differences in latent means between boys and girls. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

Psychometric characteristics of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale-Revised in a population of Polish university students.

The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale-Revised (CESD-R) has already been validated on the Polish population. However, the structure of the scale obtained at that time was not confirmed by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in subsequent studies on the Polish sample and measurement invariance for gender was not performed. The purpose of this article is to present the results of psychometric analyses to verify the structure of the CESD-R in a university student sample. An online cross-sectional study was conducted with 1519 university students (March/April 2021). The dataset was randomly divided into three subsets to perform principal component analysis (PCA, Subset 1) and CFA for CESD-R versions with different numbers of factors and items (Subsets 2 and 3). Measurement invariance for gender was verified for the whole sample. PCA pointed to a three-factor solution that was analyzed in the subsequent CFA. Due to high correlation coefficients between factors, further steps were taken using only one factor. For CFA, 20-, 18- and 9-item versions of the CESD-R were used, but the 9-item version obtained the best model fit parameters and was used to evaluate the measurement invariance for gender, which was confirmed. The 9-item CESD-R has the best model fit compared to other versions of this scale and is gender invariant. Further research is needed to verify the criterion validity of this shortened scale.

Cultural Adaptation of the Expectancy-Value-Cost Scale for Spanish-Speaking Students

The Expectancy-Value model has been extensively used to understand students' achievement motivation. However, recent studies propose the inclusion of cost as a separate construct from values, leading to the development of the Expectancy-Value-Cost model. This study aimed to adapt Kosovich et al.’s ( The Journal of Early Adolescence, 35, 5–6, 2015) instrument for assessing achievement motivation in science and math among Spanish-speaking students aged 9–12. The psychometric evaluation encompassed examining validity, reliability, and measurement invariance for gender. The findings support the applicability of the expectancy-value-cost model in elementary school students, providing a valid and reliable tool for assessing achievement motivation in the science and math domain. However, the findings for the measurement invariance for gender are less conclusive and warrant future psychometric evaluations. This study opens avenues for future research on achievement motivation in Spanish-speaking contexts and populations.

The difficulties in emotion regulation scale: Dimensionality, measurement invariance, and physiological correlates in community adolescents.

Emotion regulation is a central construct for the study of mental health in adolescence. Although the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) has been vastly used, several issues remain unanswered (e.g., factor structure/dimensionality). This study aimed to validate the 36-items DERS in a sample of 989 Portuguese community adolescent (460 boys; 529 girls; age ranged from 14 to 18). A bifactor-ESEM model, comprising a general and six specific factors (nonacceptance; goals; impulses; strategies; clarity; awareness) was explored and considered the best fitting model. Gender measurement invariance was established. When compared with boys, although differences were small in magnitude, girls presented higher emotion regulation difficulties. Evidence for reliability and construct/temporal validity were found, and significant associations between the DERS and physiological measures of emotion regulation (i.e., Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability) were established. Findings support the use of the DERS in adolescent samples.

Assessing Emotional Distress in Adolescents: Psychometrics of the Spanish Version of the Social Emotional Distress Scale-Secondary

BackgroundThe Social Emotional Distress Scale-Secondary (SEDS-S) is a short measure designed for comprehensive school-based mental health screening, particularly for using very brief self-reported measures of well-being and distress. Whereas prior studies have shown validity and reliability evidence for the English version, there is a lack of literature about its psychometric properties for Spanish-speaking youths.ObjectiveTo examine the psychometric properties of the SEDS-S in a large sample of Spanish adolescents, providing evidence of its reliability, structure, convergent and discriminant validity, longitudinal and gender measurement invariance, and normative data.MethodsParticipants were 5550 adolescents aged 12–18 years old. Test–retest reliability was examined using Cronbach’s alpha and McDonald’s omega coefficients, and evidence for convergent and discriminant validity was measured using Pearson’s correlation. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to examine structure validity, while multigroup and longitudinal measurement invariance analysis was conducted for longitudinal and gender latent structure stability.ResultsThe CFA supported a unidimensional latent structure, which was also observed to be invariant between gender groups and over time. The scale showed evidence of reliability, with coefficients above .85. In addition, the SEDS-S score was positively related to measures assessing distress and negatively related to measures assessing well-being, thereby providing convergent/discriminant validity of the total scores.ConclusionThis study provides the first evidence of the reliability and validity of the Spanish version of the SEDS-S for assessing emotional distress among adolescents, cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Furthermore, findings indicated that SEDS-S could be a suitable assessment tool for screening and program evaluation purposes at different contexts beyond the school setting.

Factor structure and measurement invariance of the English- versus Spanish-language Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire: Brief Form (S-EDE-Q-BF) in Hispanic/Latino/a/x persons seeking bariatric surgery.

Assessment of eating disorder psychopathology during preoperative psychological evaluations could be facilitated with psychometrically valid measures. One of the most commonly used measures, the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q), is lengthy and has been found to have psychometric limitations. Research has identified a shorter version that has received reliable support across diverse samples but requires further validation for use with patients being evaluated for bariatric surgery. To cross-validate the factor structure of the EDE-Q: Brief Form (EDE-Q-BF, standalone, nonnested version) with patients being evaluated for bariatric surgery across English- and Spanish-language versions and establish measurement invariance for gender and language. Northeastern hospital in the United States. Participants (n = 618) undergoing evaluations prior to bariatric surgery who identified as Hispanic/Latino/a/x and consented to participate in this research study (which did not influence eligibility for bariatric surgery) completed self-reports. Of the 618 participants, 92 were male and 526 were female, 318 preferred English and were administered English versions of the measures, and 300 preferred Spanish and were administered Spanish versions of the measures. The 3-factor structure ("Restraint," "Weight/Shape Concerns," and "Body Dissatisfaction") of the EDE-Q-BF fit the data well (χ2 [11] = 18.47; P = .071; root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] = .033; comparative fit index [CFI] > .99; standardized root mean squared residual [SRMR] = .02). Scaler invariance was met for both gender and language. Correlations with external criteria further supported its validity. The EDE-Q-BF can easily be administered as part of a preoperative psychological assessment battery to screen for eating disorder psychopathology and is valid for Hispanic/Latino/a/x men and women who speak either English or Spanish.

Bullying in Middle School: Evidence for a Multidimensional Structure and Measurement Invariance across Gender.

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the factorial structure of the bullying scale on the Trends in International Mathematics and Science (TIMSS 2019) for eighth graders and evaluate the instrument's invariance across gender so that tests of level between males and females can be conducted. Data came from the 2019 cohort of TIMSS in Saudi Arabia. The 14-item scale was evaluated using three competing models: (a) a unidimensional structure, (b) the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) online, non-online two-factor model, and (c) the Wang et al. (2012) 4-domain bullying taxonomy. Participants were 5567 eighth graders who participated in the 2019 TIMSS study. There were 2856 females and 2711 males. The mean age was 13.9 years. Data were analyzed using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Mplus 8.9. Results indicated that a 4-domain structure including verbal, physical, relational, and online bullying represented the most optimal factor structure of the 14-item bullying measure. Tests of exact measurement invariance for gender originally failed but were then satisfied using the newly recommended "alignment" methodology. Latent mean differences were salient and significant suggesting that levels of bullying across all domains were elevated in males compared to females, contrasting earlier views that different types of bullying are linked to males versus females. Results are discussed in relation to educational policy interventions.

Development and Validation of the Trait Sexual Motivation Scale (TSMS)

Sexual motivation, the interest in sexual activity, affects people’s thinking, feeling, and behavior. Common scales used to assess sexual motivation suffer from drawbacks that limit their validity and applicability. We therefore developed and validated the Trait Sexual Motivation Scale (TSMS), a brief, theory-driven self-report scale, over the course of four preregistered studies (N total = 2,083). Results indicated good model fit, high internal consistency and stability of the second-order (i.e., trait sexual motivation) and first-order (i.e., cognition, affect, behavior) factor scores, and scalar measurement invariance for gender and relationship status. The TSMS correlated as expected with sexual and non-sexual constructs and predicted sexual outcomes cross-sectionally and prospectively in everyday life. Overall, the TSMS emerged as an economical, reliable, and valid measure of sexual motivation.

Romanian Version of the Career Crafting Assessment: Psychometric Properties

The notion of career is no longer understood as a progressive advancement within the same organization, but rather as a lifelong dynamic transition between multiple jobs. Lee et al. (2021) developed Career Crafting Assessment as a means of identifying the proactive behaviors that people engage in when developing their career paths. The aim of this study was to test the psychometric properties of the Romanian version of the scale. In Study 1 ( N = 938), Confirmatory Factor Analysis supported the four-factor model of the scale. The results supported the measurement invariance for gender, but not for age. The internal consistency of the scale was adequate. In Study 2 ( N = 344), we found significant positive correlations between career crafting and two similar constructs, namely job crafting and organizational career management, supporting the convergent validity of the scale. In Study 3 ( N = 213), the criterion validity of the scale was supported by significant positive correlations between career crafting and four of its possible outcomes, namely performance, work engagement, perceived meaningfulness of work, and person-job fit. Our results are in line with the findings of Lee et al. (2021) and suggest that the Romanian version of the instrument is valid.

Psychometric properties of the mental health continuum-short form in Iranian adolescents.

Psychological tests are necessary to assess the mental state of individuals. Mental health is one of the important psychological indicators and is increasingly considered as having various aspects of well-being. The Mental Health Continuum-Short Form (MHC-SF) is a 14-item instrument that assesses mental health, focusing on emotional, psychological, and social well-being. The present study, the psychometric properties of the Persian version of the MHC-SF were examined in relation to its factor structure, internal consistency, construct validity, and gender measurement invariance among adolescents. The population of this study was Iranian adolescents between 11-and 18-year-old who were enrolled in the seventh to twelfth grades. A convenience sample of 822 Adolescents from four large cities in the Iran (Tehran, Zanjan, Hamedan and Ghazvin) participated in the present study. Questionnaires were completed online. Statistical analyses to evaluate the factor structure, internal consistency, construct validity, gender and age factorial invariance were performed in SPSS and LISREL. According to the results of confirmatory factor analysis, the MHC-SF is composed of three factors: emotional, psychological, and social well-being. Reliability was confirmed by Cronbach's alpha method and composite reliability (>0.7). Measurement invariance were confirmed among girls and boys. Convergent and divergent validity were also evaluated and confirmed by correlating the test score with similar and different tests. This study confirmed the psychometric properties of MHC-SF in the Iranian adolescent community. This instrument can be used in psychological research and diagnostic evaluations.