Pay Gap Research Articles

Unraveling the gender wage gap: Exploring early career patterns among university graduates

AbstractA large body of literature has shown that the gender wage gap is small in the first years after graduation and increases gradually with age, largely because of family decisions, often a penalty caused by childbirth. However, the gender wage gap immediately after graduation has received less attention. Using a unique dataset that links 5000 university graduates with master's degrees or equivalent from a large German university to detailed employment records from the German social security register, we specifically analyze the gender wage gap at the first job and its dynamics during the initial years of their careers after graduation. We find that a significant gender wage gap already exists in the first job after graduation, even before most young individuals make family decisions. However, this gender wage gap decreases in the first year after entering the labor market and then increases slowly over time. We attribute this initial decrease in the gender wage gap to female university graduates experiencing greater returns from firm and occupational changes than their male counterparts. This suggests that women may use these changes to address skill mismatches, which are more common among women than men in their first job.

Bi-causality between gender inequality and wage gap and its impact on economic growth

It is imperative that research be conducted on the intricate and important subject of how gender inequality and the pay gap connect to the development of India's economy. There are significant differences between the genders in a range of social, health, educational, and professional possibilities in India, just as there are in many other regions of the globe. In India, this is also the case. The main factor that contributes to the gender pay gap is the fact that women get less money than men do for doing the same job. A cycle of gender inequality is maintained and exacerbated by the salary disparity that exists today. In addition, the gender pay gap restricts women's ability to achieve economic independence, which in turn restricts their opportunities to pursue higher levels of education and healthcare. This has repercussions for the expansion of human capital, which plays an essential role in the development of the economy. Women who earn less than males are less inclined to invest in their own education and professional development, which in turn lowers the general level of competition in the labour market in developing countries.

Trapped in Flexibility: How Does Precarious Work Affect Gender Wage Gap in China?

Rapid expansion of precarious employment carries risks of exacerbating the gender wage gap in China. This article finds an inverse relationship between flexibility and security in the labor market, disproportionately affecting women workers. Drawing from the Marxist-feminist theory of social reproduction, the study conceptualizes China’s social reproduction regime as developmentalist, characterized by ongoing tension between economic development and social reproduction. Promoting precarious work, which reflects the operational logic of the developmentalist social reproduction regime, is essentially transferring social reproduction cost from capital to labor. This cost is predominantly shouldered by precarious workers, particularly women, resulting in a widened gender wage gap. Using the China Labor-force Dynamic Survey, the study finds empirical support for the theorization that the gender wage gap among precarious workers is significantly larger than among non-precarious workers. The article proposes policies addressing the gap by shifting the cost of social reproduction from labor back to capital. HIGHLIGHTS Gender wage gap is wider among precarious workers in China. Marxist-feminist theories help us to better understand GWG in precarious work. Women in precarious work face income loss risks and heavier domestic responsibilities. Developmentalist social reproduction regime seeks to balance growth and reproduction. The cost of social reproduction should be shifted back to capital.

Gender wage gap in Hidalgo, post-pandemic scenario COVID-19

Since the beginning of the 21st century, it has been found that men are paid more than women in the same job position, without this depending on their productivity or work skills. The objective of this paper is to analyze the gender wage gap in the state of Hidalgo, after the COVID-19 pandemic, through the statistical indicators provided by INEGI in the National Occupation and Employment Survey (ENOE) during the period from the first quarter of 2021 (2021.01) to the fourth quarter of 2023 (2023.04), using the Oaxaca-Blinder methodology.

Job Preferences, Motherhood, and the Gender Pay Gap

Job Preferences, Motherhood, and the Gender Pay Gap

Wage implications of FDIs in Slovakia and Slovenia on post-communist emerging markets

This study investigates the impact of Foreign Direct Investments (FDIs) on wage dynamics in Slovakia and Slovenia, with a particular emphasis on gender-specific effects in post-Communist emerging markets. By analyzing wage outcomes for male and female workers separately, the research reveals potential disparities in FDIs-driven wage growth. Employing econometric techniques and longitudinal data, the study explores the nuanced relationship between FDIs, wage policies, and economic development over time. A temporal lag in FDIs analysis suggests that Slovakia and Slovenia have experienced differing impacts from past foreign capital flows. In Slovakia, significant correlations indicate persistent FDIs influence and a pronounced effect on gender wage disparities. In Slovenia, more moderate correlations and FDIs volatility suggest a less stable relationship between external investment and wage dynamics. The originality of this research lies in its comparative approach, examining two distinct post-Communist nations and identifying unique country-specific patterns and trends. This study contributes to a deeper understanding of FDI’s role in labor market management and its implications for gender equality in two European emerging economies.

Parenthood and Paychecks—The Gender Pay Gap in Medicine

This Viewpoint examines recent evidence on the gender pay gap in US medical professions and its relationship with motherhood (the motherhood penalty) and suggests opportunities for mitigating inequity that reflect the current health care environment, advance gender equity, and enhance medical practice.

Social Equity in Municipally Owned Corporations: Do Women in the Boardroom Make a Difference to the Gender Pay Gap?

ABSTRACTRepresentative bureaucracy theory posits that the presence of less‐advantaged social groups in public leadership positions is an important driver of social equity among the recipients of public services and the public servants who provide them. To evaluate whether active representation can lead to improvements in social equity within arms‐length public service organizations, this article presents an analysis of the relationship between women in the boardroom and the gender pay gap in 102 large municipally owned corporations (MOCs) in England for a 6‐year period (2017–2022). The findings suggest that MOCs led by female chief executive officers (CEOs) have a lower pay gap between male and female employees. The presence of more women directors on MOC boards is also negatively related to the pay gap, especially in MOCs led by male CEOs. The findings highlight the importance of board gender representation to address social equity in arms‐length public service organizations.

Exploring economic assimilation of immigrants and their descendants in France: recent insights

ABSTRACT This paper examines the labour market performances of immigrants and their descendants in France by applying a series of empirical Tobit II models on a recent TeO2 database. Our work questions the labour market participation and wage disparities of these groups compared to native-born individuals by controlling different individual attributes, such as gender and educational level, and job characteristics, such as the firm size or the type of job. It also introduces information on ethnic origins and location. Our study provides crucial insights into the labour market performances of immigrants and their descendants in France. It reveals that disparities manifest primarily in labour market participation rather than wages. It also underscores that high-skilled workers’ wages do not converge as immigrants consistently yield lower returns on education than natives. Our findings underscore the heterogeneity within the immigrant group based on origins criteria. The performances of immigrants with African and Northern-African origins are lower than those of other groups of immigrants.

Macroeconomic impact of forced migration on Lebanon with a focus on labor market dynamics and policy strategies for sustainable economic growth

This article explores the profound macroeconomic consequences of forced migration on Lebanon's economy, with a specific focus on labor market dynamics. Drawing from extensive research and analysis, the study examines the factors driving migration, its impacts on the labor market, and the resultant economic challenges. It delves into the wage disparities, employment rates, and the informal sector's expansion due to the influx of migrants. The article also evaluates existing public policies and proposes strategic interventions aimed at fostering migrant integration and promoting sustainable economic growth. By addressing these critical issues, the forced aims to provide comprehensive policy recommendations to mitigate the adverse effects of forced migration and enhance Lebanon's economic resilience.

Crime in the Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC) Industry—The Role of Subcontractors

This article examines the challenges posed by criminal subcontractors in the construction industry. It aims to delineate the specific crimes committed by these subcontractors and assess their impact against the broader backdrop of industry-related criminality. Employing a scoping literature review, the study explores the existing research, summarizes key findings, and highlights gaps in the current knowledge. The construction industry’s inherent complexities and reliance on extensive subcontracting create an environment ripe for criminal activities. The research questions addressed are the following: (1) What crimes are carried out by subcontractors? (2) What are the consequences of crimes carried out by subcontractors? This study identifies several major concerns: (1) adverse impacts on project management in terms of timelines, quality, and budgetary control; (2) widespread exploitation within supply chains, ranging from wage disparities to modern slavery; (3) prevalent fraudulent practices, such as bribery, collusion, and embezzlement; and (4) the detrimental effect on Health, Environment, and Safety (HES) standards. The article underscores the diversity of legal frameworks across jurisdictions and signals the need for concerted efforts to enhance crime prevention measures, foster industry-wide collaboration, and establish robust control systems. There is an urgent need for a profound understanding of the contractor–subcontractor dynamic and procurement of substandard materials. The findings suggest that the construction industry faces formidable challenges due to criminal elements, profoundly affecting project efficiency, legal compliance, and worker welfare.

The Gender Inequality in The Peruvian Labor Market, 2004-2021

The objective of the research is to describe gender inequality in the Peruvian labor market, 2004-2021, identifying the main factors that trigger this problem. The metho-dology applied is documentary type because different articles, works and research reports are collected. For this purpose, a descriptive and comparative analysis was carried out by gender of the following aspects: economically active population, activity rate employ-ment, economically active employed population, labor income, gender wage gap, emplo-yed population in the secondary sector, underemployment, salaried employment and une-mployment. Despite the advances in gender equality, a constant and wide gap remains between men and women in the labor market. Likewise, the results found show that most of the labor market variables by gender have a positive impact and are statistically signifi-cant on the human development index, the estimates would be affected by other gender inequalities that exist in the labor market such as discrimination, stereotypes, among ot-hers.

How Does AI Affect the Pay Gap Within Firms: Mechanism Analysis Based on Personnel Structure and Corporate Investment

ABSTRACTThis study examines how AI impacts the internal pay gap within enterprises. Using data from listed companies in China and a panel data two‐way fixed effect model, findings reveal that AI widens pay gap, with executives in AI‐applied companies earning 0.327 times more than average employees. AI increases executive pay while hindering employee salary growth, especially in nonmanufacturing and private firms. Labor substitution AI reduces employee compensation growth, whereas labor enhancement AI boosts executive pay without affecting employee compensation. AI also influences personnel structure and enterprise investment in fixed assets and R&D, highlighting its “job substitution effect” and “productivity effect”.

A REVIEW OF ECONOMIC PROBLEMS FACING THE UAE

This review explores the major economic challenges currently facing the UAE. Monopoly power in key sectors like telecommunications and energy restricts competition, leading to higher consumer prices and less innovation. Economic inequality is rising, driven by stark contrasts between high-earning expatriates and low-wage migrant workers. Migrant labor, essential to the UAE’s economic growth, presents social and economic challenges, including wage disparities and limited labor rights. Housing prices, especially in Dubai, remain a concern due to fluctuations and issues of affordability. Despite efforts to diversify its economy, the UAE’s heavy dependence on oil leaves it vulnerable to global market shifts. Additionally, rapid urbanization has raised significant environmental concerns, including pollution and resource depletion, prompting the need for sustainable development. Together, these interconnected issues present long-term challenges for economic stability and social development in the UAE. KEYWORDS: Vision 2021 - A national agenda to position the UAE as a top global nation by its 50th anniversary in 2021 Vision 2030 - Abu Dhabi’s plan for economic diversification and sustainable urban growth by 2030 COP28 - The UAE-hosted 2023 UN climate summit to discuss global actions for limiting climate change Etisalat (e& UAE) - The UAE’s largest telecom provider, rebranded as e& in 2022 for digital transformation ADNOC - Abu Dhabi National Oil Company, one of the world’s leading energy producers and oil exporters DEWA - Dubai Electricity and Water Authority, responsible for energy and water infrastructure in Dubai Kafala System - A labor sponsorship system that governed foreign workers’ employment and residency in the UAE

The impact of digitization in manufacturing on female employment and gender wage gap

This paper comprehensively examines the impact of digitization in manufacturing on female employment and the gender wage gap, utilizing data from Chinese manufacturing enterprises. The findings indicate that digitization creates more employment opportunities for female workers, increases their employment share, and narrows the gender wage gap. Notably, the increase in female employment due to digitization is more pronounced in private enterprises, as well as in the eastern and central regions, particularly within low-tech industries. Similarly, the effect of digitization on reducing the gender wage gap is most significant in private enterprises, eastern regions, and low-tech sectors. The mechanism underlying these changes suggests that manufacturing digitization enhances female employment through increased output and productivity, thereby contributing to a reduction in the gender wage gap. This study holds significant value for advancing digitization and promoting gender equality in the labor market.

The relationship between bank lending and economic factors in the regions of Kazakhstan

Understanding the impact of economic factors on bank lending is crucial in Kazakhstan’s modern economy, characterized by volatile inflation and fluctuations in real wages. This paper aims to investigate the link between bank lending and economic factors such as inflation, real wages, and consumer expenditure in a regional context. Data from the Bureau of National Statistics and the National Bank, covering the period from 2012 to 2022, were used to uncover how economic factors influence bank lending. For the analysis, various economic indicators were integrated through normalization and averaging. Analysis reveals significant regional disparities in real wages and consumer expenditures, which impact the demand for bank credit. The results of the correlation matrix showed that both real wages (P-value < 0.001) and inflation (P-value < 0.001) significantly impact bank lending, with an R² value of 0.998, indicating that the model explains 99.8% of the variation in bank lending. The regression analysis highlights that regions with higher real wages, such as Astana, Almaty, and Atyrau, provide the most favorable conditions for banking sector growth, demonstrated by a strong relationship between wages and bank lending. In contrast, regions with lower wage levels, such as Turkestan and Zhambyl, show a significantly weaker connection (around 0.65), reflecting their lower attractiveness for banking investment and emphasizing the need for policies to address social inequality. The Durbin-Watson test confirmed no autocorrelation in residuals (DW = 1.89), although heteroscedasticity was detected, suggesting the need for further model adjustments. The study emphasizes the importance of developing economic policies that can balance regional development and improve financial stability. AcknowledgmentsThis research has been funded by the Science Committee of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan (Grant “Development of mechanisms for reducing social inequality and improving the welfare of the population of Kazakhstan” AP19174744).

A Comprehensive Exploration of the Gender Pay Gap in Portugal's Informal Economies

A Comprehensive Exploration of the Gender Pay Gap in Portugal's Informal Economies

“Leave me out of it and raise my salary”: Invisible work in the labor market and the gender wage gap

While the literature shows that “invisible work” – work that is neither defined nor recognized as labor – persists in the workplace, its relation to labor market outcomes, especially wages, remains relatively underexplored. This study examines the connection between invisible work and wages through a gendered perspective. Utilizing mixed-methods sequential analysis, we conducted 12 group interviews with employed women and men in Israel, uncovering four types of invisible work: physical care work, emotion labor, administrative work, and teamwork. Subsequently, we surveyed a representative sample of the Israeli labor force (n = 964). Regression analyses revealed significant relations between three types of invisible work and wages: doing physical care work correlated negatively with wages for all, while performing emotion labor and administrative work rewarded men more than women. Insights from the interviews elucidated gendered mechanisms linking wages to each invisible work type. The study emphasizes the need for gender-sensitive measures to address labor market inequality.

Decomposing the Gender Wage Gap in the Urban Labor Market in Kenya

Abstract Legislation and regulation have been effective in reducing the gender wage gap in developed countries; however, the gap still exists globally, and progress towards narrowing the gap has been unacceptably slow even in regions where it is improving. This study presents the analysis of gender wage gap in Kenya’s urban labor market by using the World Bank Skills Towards Employability and Productivity Survey (WBSTEPS). This study employed Mincer earnings regressions with Heckman selection correction and the Blinder-Oaxaca and Neumark decomposition procedures to answer the research questions. The results of the wage determination and participation in the labor market show that there is no selectivity-bias problem. Personal characteristics such as education and age, as well as work-related characteristics, are important factors in determining earnings. The magnitude of the gender wage gap varies across the wage distribution, and the results of the wage decomposition reveal that women in urban Kenya earn 84.5-to-86% of men’s earnings. The earnings gap is overwhelmingly due to differences in returns to endowments, which account for between 70% and 94.7% of the total earnings gap. Admittedly, the study found evidence of discrimination against women in the returns to endowments, but also observed pronounced favoritism towards men. However, discrimination against women is more pronounced than favoritism towards men. Addressing the gender wage gap in Kenya requires a multifaceted approach that tackles both systemic biases against women and structural barriers that hinder women from accessing equal opportunities in education, training, and career advancement and government policies that minimize favoritism towards men.

Does entrepreneurship really reduce income inequality?

This paper examines whether entrepreneurial activities reduce social inequality. Using data from 62 countries, we find that countries with higher levels of entrepreneurship have lower income inequality. We also find that various cultural factors including gender wage gap and diversity indicators influence country-level entrepreneurship. When we use gender wage gap as an instrument to account for potential endogeneity in the decision to become an entrepreneur, the entrepreneurship-inequality relation becomes stronger. In economic terms, one standard deviation in entrepreneurship reduces income inequality by 6–11 %, relative to the mean. Together, these findings suggest that entrepreneurial activities can be an effective strategy for mitigating income disparities and promoting economic inclusivity.