Pay Gap Research Articles

The widening gender wage gap in the gig economy in China: the impact of digitalisation

The gig economy, fundamentally relying on the digital economy, is often celebrated for its potential to expand employment opportunities and close gender wage gaps. However, research on its gender impacts in China, the largest developing country with a rapidly expanding gig sector, is notably lacking. Employing discrimination theory, the findings challenge the prevailing optimistic view on the role of the gig economy. Utilising the China Labour Dynamics Survey data from 2014, 2016, and 2018, and applying the Bourguignon, Fournier, and Gurgand model to correct selection bias, this study reveals that, digitalisation has exacerbated gender wage gaps, with the wage growth of female gig workers significantly lagging behind their male counterparts, especially among married and older cohorts. Adopting the Neumark decomposition, the analysis confirms that discrimination largely accounts for this gap. This study uses Generalised Propensity Score Matching as robustness test and concludes with policy recommendations.

Determinants of Salary Variation and the Gender Pay Gap: A Survey of the American Association of Hip and Knee Surgeons (AAHKS) Surgeon Member Workforce

BackgroundThe increased emphasis on reimbursement, diversity, and burnout in hip and knee arthroplasty necessitates a foundational understanding of the surgeon workforce. The purpose of the study was to cross sectionally survey a representative sample of the AAHKS surgeon membership on the subject of salary, practice patterns, and demographic factors to establish a baseline framework for future advocacy efforts and initiatives. MethodsAn online survey was sent to AAHKS members between December 20, 2022 and January 19, 2023. Surgeon demographic data, experience, practice geography and type, and annual case volume were solicited. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to describe the association of respondent characteristics with reported salary directly from patient care, as well as indirect revenue streams. ResultsA total of 730 AAHKS members responded to the survey. The largest proportion of surgeons performed 251-400 cases annually (36%); 81% (n = 592) and 93% (n = 679) of respondents identified as white and male, respectively. Case volume was the primary determinant for surgeon salary, followed by practice type, years in practice, and gender. After controlling for confounding variables, multivariate analyses revealed the direct salary of women surgeons was 14.4% less than men [95% confidence interval, 0.4%-28.3%]. When considering indirect revenue, the gender pay gap widened. Salary was not associated with reported hours worked per week, geographic location, or ethnicity. ConclusionsSalary is an important but underdiscussed subject that reflects the realities of our culture and value system in medicine. A direct relationship between salary and modifiable variables like case volume is clear. However, after controlling for confounders, women arthroplasty surgeons still earn 86 cents on the dollar compared to their male colleagues from direct surgical revenue.

The Root Causes and Current Manifestations of the Gender Income Gap

The Root Causes and Current Manifestations of the Gender Income Gap

The Greedy Jobs Phenomenon as a Driving Force Behind the Gender Pay Gap: A Systematic Review

The Greedy Jobs Phenomenon as a Driving Force Behind the Gender Pay Gap: A Systematic Review

Athletes vs. Musicians: Perceptions and Preferences in Workplace Social Programs

ABSTRACTThis paper investigates the intrinsic preferences for athletic versus musical events in the context of workplace social programs and explores the differing outcomes these events are perceived to generate. Empirical evidence consistently shows that individuals with athletic backgrounds are favoured in the job market, receiving better wages and benefits than their nonathlete counterparts because of stereotypes about their managerial qualities, stress handling and team spirit. In contrast, music participation is often undervalued, with musicians facing wage disparities and discrimination despite the cognitive and emotional benefits associated with music playing and listening. Through a vignette study, this research identifies that participants prefer athletes for events aimed at team cohesion and musicians for events designed to enhance creative skills. The findings highlight a type of job market discrimination based on preferences for workplace programs, emphasizing the role of stereotypes in shaping these preferences. The study contributes to the understanding of how workplace social programs are designed and the underlying biases that influence these decisions, offering insights into the mechanisms of job market discrimination and the potential for more inclusive program design that recognizes the value of both athletic and musical participation.

Should Men Pay Bills? -- Financial Disparities in Heterosexual Relationships

Abstract: This study investigates the enduring norm and rising debatable question of whether men should bear the financial burden in heterosexual relationships Should men pay bills? analyzing the gender dynamics through the lens of financial disparities. Drawing on a survey of 231 participants across diverse demographics, primarily from China, this study explores how societal norms and economic inequities influence heterosexual relationships and contribute to traditional gender norms. By dissecting factors such as the gender wage gap, the pink tax, and the division of labor in non-reproductive tasks, this paper highlights the economic and cultural forces impacting traditional gender roles. The survey reveals that men are generally perceived and often function as the primary earners, influenced by stereotypical gendered norms and expectations, resulting in women encountering economic disadvantages due to lower earnings and greater financial commitment to personal care. This study also examines societal pressures that dictate spending patterns, especially among women, on aesthetics, which contribute significantly to their financial and emotional strain. The findings suggest a critical need to reassess the traditional financial roles in relationships and push toward more equitable financial practices. The findings prompt a reconsideration of gendered financial responsibilities and advocate for a shift towards more equitable practices.

Unpacking the gender wage gap in the U.S.: The impact of rural employment, age, and occupation

AbstractThis paper examines three dimensions influencing the gender wage gap: rural employment, type of occupation, and workers' career stage. The findings suggest that (1) rural workplaces are associated with lower wages; (2) women face a higher wage penalty than men in rural, low‐paying jobs; (3) wage determinants differ between low‐ and high‐paying jobs, leading to variable impacts on the gender wage gap; (4) gender wage gaps are significantly narrower for early‐career workers than for older workers; and (5) even minor annual wage disparities contribute to significant wealth gaps by the end of the working life.

Promoting Decent Work and Equal Pay in the Informal Agricultural Sector: A Gender Perspective

Agriculture, the oldest human activity, is the livelihood for millions, especially in developing countries where it drives economic growth and poverty reduction. However, the informal agricultural sector lacks poor working conditions, low wages, lack of legal protection, and significant gender-based discrimination. Women often face unequal access to resources, training, and fair wages, perpetuating a cycle of poverty. This review paper examines decent work and equal pay in the informal agricultural sector, focusing on gender disparities, and offers recommendations to promote gender equality, empowerment, and sustainable development through targeted interventions and policy improvements. The study used the PRISMA model for a systematic literature review. The study highlighted the five dimensions of decent work identified by the ILO, providing a comprehensive framework for understanding and addressing challenges in achieving decent work. The review also identified several factors influencing decent work and equal pay, including government policies, market dynamics, social norms, power dynamics, and social security programs. The review further discussed the gender dimension of decent work and equal pay, highlighting the gender wage gap and the challenges faced by women in accessing decent work and fair compensation in the sector. Innovative approaches to promoting decent work and equal pay were also discussed, including social protection programs, collective bargaining, microfinance initiatives, vocational training, and digital tools.

Addressing gender inequality issues in Australia: An annual review of developments

Addressing issues of gender inequality is ongoing and important in the context of broader employment relations at work. Scholars within the Australian industrial relations community work toward the continuance of research and analysis that highlights the perennial issues impacting women in the labor market, to address historical and systemic barriers and identified inequalities. This article provides a review of the major developments and activities undertaken toward addressing gender inequality based on recent changes to industrial relations legislation. The article focuses on the Workplace Gender Equality Act 2012 and the amendments made via the Workplace Gender Equality Amendment (Closing the Gender Pay Gap) 2023 Bill. The Fair Work Act 2009 amendments via the Secure Jobs, Better Pay 2022 and Closing Loopholes 2023 are also discussed. This article reviews these recent changes in answer to this special issue's call for a review of the key issues and developments made toward addressing gender inequality, useful for both academics and practitioners of employment relations.

Working at Home and the Gender Wage Gap

ABSTRACTThis paper examines the impact of working at home on the wages of men and women using cross‐sectional and panel data from Australia. The results show that working at home helps narrow the gender wage gap. A concerning finding is that fathers who work at home earn significantly less than other men who work at home. Policy implications are discussed.

O CRESCIMENTO DAS MULHERES EM CARGOS DE LIDERANÇA NA ÚLTIMA DÉCADA EM PERNAMBUCO

The article discusses the growth of female leadership in Pernambuco in recent years, driven by public policies and business initiatives. From projects like #TáComElas, which train women for leadership positions, to the inclusion of women in executive roles in large companies, there is a positive movement towards gender equality. However, wage disparity persists, with women earning on average 78% of men's salaries in similar positions. The theoretical foundation explores the historical and cultural context of women's integration into the workforce, the role of public policies and private initiatives promoting female leadership, and the challenges women still face, such as cultural biases and difficulties balancing personal and professional life. Studies indicate that women's participation in leadership roles is on the rise, but challenges remain. Practical examples, such as those of Laís Xavier and Taciana Medeiros, highlight the relevance and impact of female leadership in the state. The methodology includes exploratory research based on journalistic reports and interviews with women in leadership positions. The interviewees share their career paths, emphasizing the importance of perseverance and the constant pursuit of growth. Lastly, the case study presents the experiences of two businesswomen from Pernambuco, Elaine Ferreira and Juliana Werner, who discuss their success stories and the challenges they face in their respective fields.

Unraveling the gender wage gap: Exploring early career patterns among university graduates

AbstractA large body of literature has shown that the gender wage gap is small in the first years after graduation and increases gradually with age, largely because of family decisions, often a penalty caused by childbirth. However, the gender wage gap immediately after graduation has received less attention. Using a unique dataset that links 5000 university graduates with master's degrees or equivalent from a large German university to detailed employment records from the German social security register, we specifically analyze the gender wage gap at the first job and its dynamics during the initial years of their careers after graduation. We find that a significant gender wage gap already exists in the first job after graduation, even before most young individuals make family decisions. However, this gender wage gap decreases in the first year after entering the labor market and then increases slowly over time. We attribute this initial decrease in the gender wage gap to female university graduates experiencing greater returns from firm and occupational changes than their male counterparts. This suggests that women may use these changes to address skill mismatches, which are more common among women than men in their first job.

Bi-causality between gender inequality and wage gap and its impact on economic growth

It is imperative that research be conducted on the intricate and important subject of how gender inequality and the pay gap connect to the development of India's economy. There are significant differences between the genders in a range of social, health, educational, and professional possibilities in India, just as there are in many other regions of the globe. In India, this is also the case. The main factor that contributes to the gender pay gap is the fact that women get less money than men do for doing the same job. A cycle of gender inequality is maintained and exacerbated by the salary disparity that exists today. In addition, the gender pay gap restricts women's ability to achieve economic independence, which in turn restricts their opportunities to pursue higher levels of education and healthcare. This has repercussions for the expansion of human capital, which plays an essential role in the development of the economy. Women who earn less than males are less inclined to invest in their own education and professional development, which in turn lowers the general level of competition in the labour market in developing countries.

Trapped in Flexibility: How Does Precarious Work Affect Gender Wage Gap in China?

Rapid expansion of precarious employment carries risks of exacerbating the gender wage gap in China. This article finds an inverse relationship between flexibility and security in the labor market, disproportionately affecting women workers. Drawing from the Marxist-feminist theory of social reproduction, the study conceptualizes China’s social reproduction regime as developmentalist, characterized by ongoing tension between economic development and social reproduction. Promoting precarious work, which reflects the operational logic of the developmentalist social reproduction regime, is essentially transferring social reproduction cost from capital to labor. This cost is predominantly shouldered by precarious workers, particularly women, resulting in a widened gender wage gap. Using the China Labor-force Dynamic Survey, the study finds empirical support for the theorization that the gender wage gap among precarious workers is significantly larger than among non-precarious workers. The article proposes policies addressing the gap by shifting the cost of social reproduction from labor back to capital. HIGHLIGHTS Gender wage gap is wider among precarious workers in China. Marxist-feminist theories help us to better understand GWG in precarious work. Women in precarious work face income loss risks and heavier domestic responsibilities. Developmentalist social reproduction regime seeks to balance growth and reproduction. The cost of social reproduction should be shifted back to capital.

Gender wage gap in Hidalgo, post-pandemic scenario COVID-19

Since the beginning of the 21st century, it has been found that men are paid more than women in the same job position, without this depending on their productivity or work skills. The objective of this paper is to analyze the gender wage gap in the state of Hidalgo, after the COVID-19 pandemic, through the statistical indicators provided by INEGI in the National Occupation and Employment Survey (ENOE) during the period from the first quarter of 2021 (2021.01) to the fourth quarter of 2023 (2023.04), using the Oaxaca-Blinder methodology.

Job Preferences, Motherhood, and the Gender Pay Gap

Job Preferences, Motherhood, and the Gender Pay Gap

Wage implications of FDIs in Slovakia and Slovenia on post-communist emerging markets

This study investigates the impact of Foreign Direct Investments (FDIs) on wage dynamics in Slovakia and Slovenia, with a particular emphasis on gender-specific effects in post-Communist emerging markets. By analyzing wage outcomes for male and female workers separately, the research reveals potential disparities in FDIs-driven wage growth. Employing econometric techniques and longitudinal data, the study explores the nuanced relationship between FDIs, wage policies, and economic development over time. A temporal lag in FDIs analysis suggests that Slovakia and Slovenia have experienced differing impacts from past foreign capital flows. In Slovakia, significant correlations indicate persistent FDIs influence and a pronounced effect on gender wage disparities. In Slovenia, more moderate correlations and FDIs volatility suggest a less stable relationship between external investment and wage dynamics. The originality of this research lies in its comparative approach, examining two distinct post-Communist nations and identifying unique country-specific patterns and trends. This study contributes to a deeper understanding of FDI’s role in labor market management and its implications for gender equality in two European emerging economies.

Parenthood and Paychecks—The Gender Pay Gap in Medicine

This Viewpoint examines recent evidence on the gender pay gap in US medical professions and its relationship with motherhood (the motherhood penalty) and suggests opportunities for mitigating inequity that reflect the current health care environment, advance gender equity, and enhance medical practice.

Social Equity in Municipally Owned Corporations: Do Women in the Boardroom Make a Difference to the Gender Pay Gap?

ABSTRACTRepresentative bureaucracy theory posits that the presence of less‐advantaged social groups in public leadership positions is an important driver of social equity among the recipients of public services and the public servants who provide them. To evaluate whether active representation can lead to improvements in social equity within arms‐length public service organizations, this article presents an analysis of the relationship between women in the boardroom and the gender pay gap in 102 large municipally owned corporations (MOCs) in England for a 6‐year period (2017–2022). The findings suggest that MOCs led by female chief executive officers (CEOs) have a lower pay gap between male and female employees. The presence of more women directors on MOC boards is also negatively related to the pay gap, especially in MOCs led by male CEOs. The findings highlight the importance of board gender representation to address social equity in arms‐length public service organizations.

Exploring economic assimilation of immigrants and their descendants in France: recent insights

ABSTRACT This paper examines the labour market performances of immigrants and their descendants in France by applying a series of empirical Tobit II models on a recent TeO2 database. Our work questions the labour market participation and wage disparities of these groups compared to native-born individuals by controlling different individual attributes, such as gender and educational level, and job characteristics, such as the firm size or the type of job. It also introduces information on ethnic origins and location. Our study provides crucial insights into the labour market performances of immigrants and their descendants in France. It reveals that disparities manifest primarily in labour market participation rather than wages. It also underscores that high-skilled workers’ wages do not converge as immigrants consistently yield lower returns on education than natives. Our findings underscore the heterogeneity within the immigrant group based on origins criteria. The performances of immigrants with African and Northern-African origins are lower than those of other groups of immigrants.