Persistent Gender Differences Research Articles

Can fertility decline help explain gender pay convergence?

Abstract Prior scholarship demonstrates that motherhood wage penalties and fatherhood wage premiums contribute to the gender pay gap. These analyses typically take a cross-sectional perspective, asking to what extent gender inequalities in the association between parenthood and wages can explain gender pay inequality for a given cohort or at a given moment in time. By contrast, explorations of gender pay convergence over time have tended to start at the firm’s door, testing the explanatory power of changes in men’s and women’s human capital and job characteristics and neglecting the contributions of fertility change. We bring these two strands of research together, asking to what extent declines 1980–2018 in US employees’ number of children can explain gender pay convergence over the same period. Using a descriptive decomposition and data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, we show that, in gross terms, fertility decline can explain almost one-quarter of gender pay convergence from 1980 to 2018. Even net of a host of controls for human capital and job characteristics, fertility decline explains 8 percent of the attenuation of the US gender pay gap 1980–2018—about half as much as changes in education and about a quarter as much as changes in full-time work experience and job tenure combined. Finally, we show that employees’ fertility decline was fastest in the 1980s and subsequently slowed; this, in conjunction with persistent gender differences in parenthood–wage associations, helps explain stalled progress toward gender pay parity.

A Comparative Analysis of the Factors Influencing Job Expectations among Unemployed Men and Women in Sri Lanka

In Sri Lanka, persistent gender differences in unemployment rates exist, with women enduring greater rates of unemployment de-spite having a higher average educational attainment than men. Gender differences in job search intensity vary with attitudes to-ward employment or unemployment as attitudes play a significant role in employment decision-making. These differences are intimately linked to people's expectations and mindsets regarding their work, which are strongly influenced by societal and cultural gender roles. This study looks at how job expectations differ between unemployed men and women in Sri Lanka. This study relies on data from the Department of Census and Statistics Sri Lanka Labour Force Survey (2021) and a multinomial logistic model to analyse the total unemployed, male unemployed, and female unemployed separately while taking two dependent variables; job sector expectations and occupational expectations. The study's findings emphasise the pivotal role of gender in sharpening job expectations among the unemployed. Regarding job sector expectations, unemployed women are more inclined towards jobs in the public sector than those in the private sector because of the government's reputation for offering standardized working hours and a work-life balance conducive environment. Furthermore, there are noteworthy differences in occupational expectations as unemployed women are more likely to expect professional and managerial level jobs with the increase in higher education enrolment. This study offers a groundbreaking contribution to the literature by unveiling unique, gender-specific determinants of job expectations among Sri Lanka's unemployed, highlighting the influence of unemployment duration, and employing distinct analytical models to bridge significant theoretical, empirical and methodological gaps. Finally, this study puts forth the broader discourse on gender, unemployment, and labour market dynamics in Sri Lanka, offering gender-specific policy recommendations aimed at bridging the expectation gap between unemployed men and women in Sri Lanka.

Mismatches in Health: A Global Analysis of Discrepancies Between Self-Reported and Tested Mobility and Cognition

The health of individuals is frequently assessed based on self-reported information derived from surveys. However, self-reports are often inconsistent with their tested equivalents, indicating measurement issues. While discrepancies between self-reported and tested health indicators have been investigated for high-income countries in Europe, little comparative research has been conducted involving other low-income regions. This paper analyses discrepancies between self-reported and tested health limitations across 25 countries from six world regions with different income-levels, cultural backgrounds, institutional settings, and epidemiological trajectories. Using harmonised data from the Gateway to Global Aging, we match self-reported mobility and cognition with their tested equivalent to assess discrepancies at the individual level. Our results suggest that the consistency between these measures is strongly correlated with the Human Development Index, with lower scores of development showing higher discrepancies. Examining patterns by age reveals that self-reports do not accurately reflect the deterioration of health associated with aging – tested health exhibits a pronounced age gradient, whereas self-reported health varies little over the life course, particularly self-reported memory. We find no persistent gender differences in consistency. These discrepancies cast doubt on the reliability of mobility and cognitive self-reports, especially when comparing health across nations with differing development levels. * This article belongs to a special issue on “Levels and Trends of Health Expectancy: Understanding its Measurement and Estimation Sensitivity”.

Reject or revise: Gender differences in persistence and publishing in economics

AbstractWe design an experiment to study gender differences in reactions to editorial decisions on submissions to top economics journals. Respondents read a hypothetical editor's letter where the decision (e.g., revise and resubmit) is randomized across participants. Relative to an R&R, female assistant professors who receive a rejection perceive a significantly lower likelihood of subsequently publishing the paper in any leading journal than comparable male assistant professors. We do not find this gender difference among tenured professors. We consider several mechanisms, pointing to gender differences in attribution of negative feedback to ability and confidence under time constraints as likely explanations.

The Triple Day Thesis Versus Neoclassical Models of Labour Supply: Alternative Perspectives and Policies

ABSTRACT In this theoretical paper, we respond to the Triple Day Thesis (TDT) by positioning it within the context of the neoclassical labour supply literature and existing public policy. The TDT applies a theoretical lens to the practical experiences of mothers as they distribute time between self-reproductive, reproductive, and waged work. Self-reproductive work refers to self-care, self-investment, and self-realizable activities, including time for good sleep, schooling, and intellectual and social engagements that promote mothers’ human development and well-being. The TDT identifies the Triple Day Problem (TDP) as the lack of freedom or inability of mothers to engage in self-reproductive work as they balance the increasing demands of reproductive work with waged work and proposes Motherhood Compensation as a social policy solution. In this paper, we demonstrate that the existence of the TDP can be used to explain persistent gender differences in labour force participation. We envision the TDT as a novel theoretical approach to promoting mothers’ labour force participation and social mobility through self-reproductive work. We suggest that Motherhood Compensation can be created from a mix of already existing family programs, including paid leave, parental allowance, and cash transfer programs.

Gender Differences in Persistence in a Field of Study: This Isn’t All about Grades

Gender Differences in Persistence in a Field of Study: This Isn’t All about Grades

Understanding sex differences when majoring in economics: what little we know, reasons for knowledge gaps, and a research agenda of unanswered questions

We provide a comprehensive review of what research on U.S. students and institutions has revealed about women’s decisions to persist in the economics major, and we identify key avenues for future research. We first document gender differences in introductory economics course enrolments and persistence in the major. We then explore commonly cited reasons for this gender gap in economics, including issues within the profession (chilly climate), the major (role models, quantitative emphasis), and classroom environment (grade sensitivity, relevance). Throughout this review we identify gaps in the existing research, focusing on the lack of generalizability of existing findings. Lack of generalizability arises because of the use of convenience data, including single institution administrative retrospective data. Based on this background, we offer a research agenda that would greatly enhance our understanding of why female students attrite at higher rates at each step of the major.

Gender differences in politician persistence and incumbency advantage

I analyze the difference in the persistence of men and women after an electoral loss and in their incumbency advantage, using data from the Canadian Municipal Elections Database. I find strong deterrence and incumbency effects among both men and women, but no evidence of a significant gender heterogeneity. Men are 14.9 to 16.6 percentage points less likely to re-enter politics after an electoral loss, while women are 11.8 to 14.3 percentage points less likely to do so. Moreover, incumbent male candidates are 5.8 percentage points more likely to win the next election, while female candidates are 5.6 percentage points more likely to win again. The findings have important implications for program and policy development at the municipal and provincial levels, and assist in the understanding of the roles played by political and electoral institutions in shaping elections’ outcomes.

Persistent gender differences in spatial ability, even in STEM experts

BackgroundSpatial ability (SA) shows wide variability. One proposed explanation for the observed individual difference in SA is variability in interest and engagement in activities that promote spatial ability. Research also robustly shown that males on average outperform females in most aspects of SA. Previous studies have identified a number of activities that can potentially contribute to both individual and gender differences in SA, including tinkering with electronics, particular sports activities, and designing. However, the findings regarding these links are inconsistent. One way to investigate these links is to compare the groups that are intensively engaged with these activities. AimThe present study aims to evaluate the robustness of these links by comparing SA in adolescents with expertise in STEM, arts, and sports, with their unselected peers. We also aimed to assess whether gender differences in SA are still present in expert groups. MethodsThe data on ten small-scale SA tests was collected in an unselected sample of adolescents (N = 864, Mean age = 15.4, SD = 1.1); as well as in 3 samples of adolescents with expertise in STEM (N = 667, Mean age = 15, SD = 1.2); in Arts (N = 280, Mean age = 15, SD = 1.2) and in Sports (N = 444, Mean age = 14.3, SD = 0.7). ResultsOut of the three expert groups, only STEM experts on average outperformed the unselected group on all SA tasks. The STEM experts also outperformed Arts and Sports experts. Gender differences persisted in all expert groups, with moderate effect sizes. DiscussionFindings support previously established links between spatial ability and STEM-related expertise. In contrast, such links were not found for expertise in arts and sports. Consistent with previous research, we found gender differences in SA for all samples, which persisted in STEM experts.

The Returns to Education and the Determinants of Race and Gender Earnings Gaps Using Self-Reported versus Employer-Reported Earnings Data

There are wide and persistent gender and race differences in wage and salary incomes. Much of the literature attempting to explain these differences relies on self-reported earnings. Many self-reported wages and salary incomes differ, however, from those reported by employers. These errors can bias the measurement of the returns to education and the decomposition of racial and gender earnings gaps. This article examines the implications of using selfreported data for measuring gender and race disparities in earnings. We find that relative to employer-reported data, self-reports understate the wage and salary incomes of black women with low educational levels and overstate the returns to higher education for black women. These previously unexplored and unrecognised findings of bias in the estimation of the returns to black women’s education and the large understatement of earnings among less-well educated black women have implications for interpreting the sources of race and gender earnings inequality.

A big (male) fish in a small pond? The gendered effect of relative ability on STEM aspirations under stereotype threat

Abstract Despite gender similarity in math ability, studies show persistent gender differences in STEM aspirations among adolescents. Extending previous literature on student math ability, biased self-assessment, and gender stereotypes, this paper emphasizes on the important process of social comparison in producing gender disparities in STEM aspirations. In particular, we examine the crucial role of relative ability, or a student’s ordinal ability rank within their peer group, and its interaction with the gender-math stereotypical environment. Using unique information on random classroom assignments from the China Educational Panel Survey (CEPS), we are able to exploit idiosyncratic variation in classmate composition to identify the effect of ability rank on student STEM aspirations and the moderating role of student exposure to gender-math stereotype. We show that after controlling for absolute cognitive ability, the effect of a student’s ability rank on STEM aspirations differs by gender, with girls benefiting less relative to boys from a higher ability rank in class. Moreover, this gender difference in the effect of ability rank on STEM aspirations is larger among students who are exposed to a higher level of gender-math stereotype from classmates. We discuss the theoretical and empirical implications of our findings.

Gender Differences in STEM Persistence after Graduation

Much attention is focused on finding ways to encourage females to study STEM in school and college, but what actually happens once women complete a STEM degree? We use the UK Quarterly Labour Force Survey to trace out gender differences in STEM persistence over the career. We find a continuous process whereby women are more likely to exit STEM than men. Among STEM undergraduate degree holders, women are more likely to obtain a non‐STEM master's degree. After entering the labour market, there is a gradual outflow of females during the first 15 years post‐graduation, so that females are about 20 percentage points less likely to work in STEM than men. Conditional on leaving STEM, females are more likely to enter the education and health sectors, while males are more likely to enter the business sector, and this can partly explain the gender pay gap for STEM graduates. Overall, our results suggest that policies that aim to increase the proportion of females studying STEM may have less effect than expected due to the lower attachment of females to STEM after graduation. Such policies may need to be augmented with efforts to tackle the greater propensity of females to exit STEM throughout the career.

Gender Differences in Non-Persistence with Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors and Angiotensin Receptor Blockers among Older Hypertensive Patients with Peripheral Arterial Disease.

The beneficial effects of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) in hypertensive patients with peripheral arterial disease (PAD) depends on long-term persistence. The aims of our study were to analyse gender differences in non-persistence with ACEIs/ARBs, and to identify the characteristics associated with the likelihood of non-persistence. Our study cohort included 7080 hypertensive patients (4005 women and 3075 men) aged ≥65 years, treated with ACEIs/ARBs, in whom PAD was diagnosed between 1 January and 31 December 2012. Non-persistence was identified according to a treatment gap of 6 months without ACEI/ARB prescriptions. The characteristics associated with non-persistence were identified using the Cox regression model. At the end of the 5-year follow-up, 23.2% of the whole study cohort, 22.3% of men, and 23.9% of women were non-persistent with ACEIs/ARBs, with no significant gender differences in persistence. While a number of characteristics were associated with non-persistence, only three characteristics had consistent, statistically significant associations in both genders: being a new ACEI/ARB user increased the likelihood of non-persistence, and general practitioner as index prescriber and increasing the overall number of medications decreased the likelihood of non-persistence. Information on the differences in characteristics that are associated with non-persistence between genders may help to better identify patients for whom special attention should be paid to improve their persistence.

Cultural stratification in the UK: Persistent gender and class differences in cultural voraciousness

This paper adds to the literature on cultural stratification by revisiting cultural voraciousness, nearly two decades after it was first introduced as a measure of cultural participation designed to capture inequalities in the pace and variety of cultural activities. Specifically, using the UK 2014–15 Time Use Survey, we compare measures of cultural voraciousness in the UK in 1998 and 2015, focussing in particular on the way cultural voraciousness is associated with both gender and class. We find continuity over time in the patterns of relationship between cultural voraciousness, gender and class, which are not explained by income or hours worked. While women at the bottom of the class scale are still the most disadvantaged in terms of unequal access to cultural participation, high level managerial women now equal equivalent men in their voracious cultural participation. We conclude that not only is cultural voraciousness still useful in depicting cultural inequalities delineated by gender and class, and not only do gender and class gaps in cultural voraciousness persist over time, but also that there is evidence for accentuated class inequality over time in cultural voraciousness among men and among women.

The influence of geographic mobility and gender on Indiana wages

The study examines wage differentials of individuals experiencing unemployment episodes using a multivariate analysis of wage and unemployment records. The focus is the wage effect of small distance geographic mobility (micro-mobility) during job seeking. The results identify limitations on geographic micro-mobility as a source of wage disparity in the re-employment market. The study isolates persistent gender differences in geographic mobility rates and hypothesizes this as a potential source of gender-wage disparity in both the re-employment and greater labor market. The data and methods are unique. The dataset is Indiana administrative wage records over a ten-year period for individuals that experience unemployment episodes. The study assesses unemployment as an exogenous shock on wages to determine underlying influences in the labor market. The novel approach is unconstrained by limitations associated with aggregated or proxy data.

Society shapes industrial policy, industrial policy shapes society

Industrial Policy has been defined and performed in very different ways over time and across countries and continents, along with its aims and scope. Instead of repeating these controversies, the article starts with the emerging consensus that systemic industrial policy should support societal priorities and that instruments should be used which maximize synergies with other policy strands. A future-oriented industrial policy should also no longer maximize national priorities, but goals should at least be shared with neighboring countries. Realistically, we have to acknowledge that it will remain a weapon in the competition between superpowers and those who want to defend or gain this status. Industrial Policy will also be different in emerging countries with low income and education, a high agricultural share, and persistent gender differences, compared to that in highly industrialized countries. Industrial policy leads to and requires structural change, with causality running in both directions. Its shape will influence the "future of capitalism", and the socio-ecological system will define the content of a systemic and integrated industrial policy.

Abstract MP38: Gender Differences In Temporal Trends Of Cardiovascular Health In Young US Adults

Introduction: Favorable cardiovascular health (CVH) in young adulthood has been associated with lower future cardiovascular risk. Characterizing the gender-stratified temporal trends of CVH among younger adults may better inform opportunities for earlier prevention. Therefore, we assessed persistence of gender differences in overall CVH and individual component in young US adults. Methods: Based on the National Health Examination and Nutrition Survey data 2007-2018, we identified 10,206 individuals aged 20 to 39 years. Gender and sociodemographic measures were self-reported. The CVH was assessed based on the American Heart Association’s Life’s Simple 7 metrics. Changes in the mean number of ideal CVH components (out of 7) and the ideal proportion of individual component were calculated using weighted linear regression analysis. Changes in gender differences were assessed with an interaction term between gender and calendar year. Results: The mean [SD] age of the study population was 29.3 [5.8] years, and 5,260 (51.5%) individuals were female. Between 2007 and 2018, the mean [95% CI] ideal CVH component remained unchanged in both females (4.40 [4.27-4.52] to 4.48 [4.34-4.61]; P value=0.94) and males (3.97 [3.86-4.08] to 3.93 [3.76-4.10]; P value=0.87) with stable gender differences ( P for interaction=0.94). Nonetheless, gender differences in blood pressure widened ( P for interaction <0.001) as ideal blood pressure decreased (54.0% to 46.9%; P value=0.03) only in males. Concurrently, the proportion of females with ideal physical activity level declined (57.3% to 49.4; P value=0.04) whereas stagnant in males ( P for interaction=0.03). Non-smoking increased in females (64.1% to 70.5%; P value=0.05), otherwise unchanged in males ( P for interaction=0.01). Conclusions: Gender disparities in CVH have persisted with exacerbated differences in blood pressure, physical activity, and smoking. These insights provide opportunities to promote equitable CVH and to address disparities.

Reject or Revise: Gender Differences in Persistence and Publishing in Economics

Reject or Revise: Gender Differences in Persistence and Publishing in Economics

Reject or Revise: Gender Differences in Persistence and Publishing in Economics

Reject or Revise: Gender Differences in Persistence and Publishing in Economics

Performance Feedback and Gender Differences in Persistence

Performance Feedback and Gender Differences in Persistence