Gender Differences In Location Research Articles

New insights into trends and reasons for the gender pay gap in Urban China, 1988-2013

ABSTRACT This study documents long-run trends of the gender pay gap (GPG) in urban China 1988–2013 using the Chinese Household Income Project microdata. We find a fluctuating and enlarging GPG over time. The average ratio of female to male earnings fell from 85.2% to 79.9%. Analysis by earnings percentiles shows that the GPG is larger at the bottom of the earnings distribution than it is at the top. We utilize OLS regressions, Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition, and Juhn-Murphy-Pierce decomposition to make a comprehensive analysis of the contributing factors to the GPG. By 2013, conventional human capital variables explained little of the GPG. Gender differences in location (ownership, occupation, and industry) were important, although the magnitude of the effect of three factors has changed over time. Gender differences in job characteristics (contract type and firm size) are also important in explaining the GPG. The increases in the unexplained gap contributed to the divergence of the gender gap. Analysis by sub-periods shows that there were distinctive patterns behind the changes of the GPG. The main contributors to the diverging trend of the GPG were changes in the wage structure to women and women’s disadvantages in unobserved skills.

Gender and age dependent differences in the renal NMDA receptor

NMDA is a "glutamate" receptor found throughout the brain. We have previously reported functional n‐methyl‐d‐aspartate (NMDA) receptors in rat kidney (J. Am Soc Neph 13:1381, 2002). These calcium channel receptors are independent of renal innervation. NMDA is required for glycine‐induced increase in glomerular filtration rate and renal plasma flow, and also for the increases in oxygen consumption and proximal tubule sodium transport. In this study, we investigated age and gender differences of the various NMDA receptor subtypes in the rat kidney. We measured subtypes, NR1, NR2A‐D, and NR3A‐B in rat kidneys by Western blot (when antibody available) and by RT‐PCR. In addition we looked at NMDA receptor expression in fixed kidney using immunohistochemistry. Results: We found varied amounts of receptor subtypes expression by RT‐PCR and Western Blot. Specifically, we found the NR2A subunit to be significantly lower in female rats compared to males, and gender and age differences in histological expression of NMDA subtypes. This is in agreement with studies finding gender differences in location of the NR2A subunit in the rat brain, and changes in NMDA subtype expression during brain development. These studies reiterate the importance of the renal NMDA receptors and point to another gender‐dependent difference in renal function. Funded by NIH NIDDK RO‐1 DK 62831.

Gender differences in the renal NMDA receptor in rats.

NMDA is a “glutamate” receptor found throughout the brain. It is involved in plasticity and learning. Over stimulation may cause apoptosis and cell death during ischemic insults such as stroke. We have previously reported functional n-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors in rat kidney (J. Am Soc Neph 13:, 2002). These calcium channel receptors are independent of renal innervation. NMDA is required for glycine-induced increase in glomerular filtration rate and renal plasma flow, and also for the increases in oxygen consumption and proximal tubule sodium transport. There are several NMDA subtypes present in the brain. These subtypes may vary by age and sex of the animal. In this study we measured the NMDA subtypes, NR1 and NR2A-D in rat kidneys by Western Blot. In addition, we compared male to female rat kidneys. We found all receptor subtypes are present in rat kidney tissues. In addition, we found the NR2A subunit to be significantly lower in female rats compared to males. The other subunits were not different. This is in agreement with studies finding gender differences in location of the NR2A subunit of the NMDA receptor in the rat brain. These studies reiterate the importance of the renal NMDA receptor in kidney function and point to another gender-dependent difference in renal regulation. Funded by NIH NIDDK RO-1 DK 62831.

Characteristics of violence in the community by female patients seen in a psychiatric emergency service.

This study examined differences in factors associated with violence toward others by female and male patients evaluated in a psychiatric emergency service. A sample of 812 psychiatric patients recruited in the emergency service of an urban psychiatric hospital were followed in the community over a six-month period. Patients provided self-reports of violent incidents, and collateral informants also provided reports of the incidents. Official records were also reviewed. During the followup period, 369 patients (213 male and 156 female patients) engaged in violence, defined as laying hands on another person in a threatening manner or threatening another person with a weapon. Male and female patients did not differ significantly in frequency and seriousness of violence, but they did differ on who the co-combatant was and where the incident took place. Gender is not a strong predictor of involvement in violence by psychiatric patients. The observed gender differences in location in which violence took place and identity of the co-combatant may be related to differences in the social worlds of men and women, with men having more opportunity for public violence with strangers.