Gender Differences In Expectations Research Articles

Mother knows best: how working mothers influence gender and racial differences in educational expectations for graduate school

Educational expectations have increased over time in the United States. Most adolescents expect to earn a bachelor’s degree and a graduate or professional degree. Although past research has generally agreed on the status-attainment perspective to understand educational expectations, these frameworks are limited in terms of the type of parental resources they address, as well as inattention to the intersection of gender and race over time. We address these gaps and investigate variations in youths’ expectations for graduate school by mother’s employment status, gender, and race using Monitoring the Future data from twelfth graders from 1976 to 2019. We find that mother’s employment status positively influences women’s graduate school expectations more than men’s across all racial groups we examine with young Black women holding the highest graduate school expectations. We also find that maternal employment patterns graduate school expectations over time but only for White respondents. Black respondents hold higher expectations, but this trend is stable across maternal employment status.

Fulfilling moral duty or prioritizing moral image? The moral self-regulatory consequences of ethical voice.

Previous research on the consequences of ethical voice has largely focused on the performance or social relational consequences of ethical voice on multiple organizational stakeholders. The present research provides an important extension to the ethical voice literature by investigating the distinct intrapersonal and interpersonal moral self-regulatory processes that shape ethical voicers' own psychological experiences and their subsequent purposeful efforts to maintain a positive sense of moral self. On one hand, we argue that ethical voice heightens voicers' sense of responsibility over ethical matters at work (i.e., moral ownership), which motivates them to refrain from violating moral norms (i.e., disengaging from unethical behaviors). On the contrary, we argue that ethical voice generates psychological pressure for voicers as they become anxious about preserving their moral social image (i.e., moral reputation maintenance concerns), which motivates them to signal their moral character to others through symbolic acts (i.e., engaging in moral symbolization behaviors). Further, we expect gender differences in the moral consequences of ethical voice. Across two studies that varied in temporal focus (a multisource, time-lagged field study and a within-person weekly experience sampling study), we found support for most of our predictions. The results suggest that while potentially psychologically uplifting (for both men and women), ethical voice also generates psychological pressure for the voicer to preserve their favorable moral social image and thus motivates them (more so in the case of women voicers at the between-person level) to explicitly symbolize their moral character in the workplace. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

The cloak of equality in STEM education: institutionalised masking of gender differences in STEM expectations, task values, and participation

ABSTRACT Do gender parity and egalitarian values in STEM education mask institutionalised gender inequalities in STEM? This study uses student background questionnaire data from the 2015 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) supplemented by national level data on gender parity in educational enrolment and female participation in the STEM workforce from the United Nations and International Labor Organization to empirically examine the evidence. Using two-level hierarchical linear models, we analyse the effects of students’ STEM expectancies and task values on their anticipated STEM education and career participation. Results confirm that gender equity and egalitarian values dominate the cross-national expectancies and task values for STEM education, both across genders as well as for female and male students separately, even though there is wide variation and significant gendered inequality that persists in both educational access and STEM workforce participation. Thus, the ‘cloak of equality’ hypothesis is supported by the evidence presented.

Stereotypical behavior vs. expectations: Gender differences in a dictator game

In general gender differences have frequently been studied in experimental economics, but the findings remain inconclusive. In this study, we focus on gender differences in expectations and gender specific stereotypic mindsets in a dictator game, building on Blanckenburg, Tebbe, & Iseke (2023). We add to prior work by differentiating between stereotypical behavior and stereotypical expectations. Accordingly, we extended the classic dictator game by three steps in order to study whether recipients develop stereotypical beliefs regarding the dictator’s gender based on the amount of money the dictator has allocated to them. First, we asked recipients to estimate the amount. We then revealed the amount the dictator actually allocated to the recipient and finally, we asked the recipient to assess the dictator’s gender. In contrast to and building on previous results which show no gender differences regarding the amount the dictators allocate, we find evidence for stereotypical expectations of the recipients based on the amount the dictator allocates to them.

Does information disclosure affect the gender gap in bidding behavior? Empirical evidence from a natural experiment on a large online labor platform

Exploiting an exogenous change in information disclosure on one of the largest online labor platforms worldwide, we assess how the provision of more information on the employers’ willingness to pay (WTP) and the required experience level of workers affects the gender gap in bidding behavior. We find that female workers make lower wage proposals than male workers if the employers’ WTP for a project, as given by its budget, is disclosed in addition to the (exogenously enforced) experience level of workers that employers deem necessary for the job, i.e., low, intermediate, or high. In addition, we do not find robust empirical support for the hypothesis that female workers’ under-confidence in their skills increases the gender gap in bidding behavior. Finally, we find a statistically significant gender wage gap of 16.8 %, which is reduced to 1.5 % when we control for employer, worker, and project characteristics. Once we include workers’ wage proposals in our agreed-upon wage regressions, the gender wage gap virtually disappears (0.2 %) and is statistically insignificant. This suggests that gender differences in wage expectations pertain to gender differences in wages.

Exploring the personality and relationship factors that mediate the connection between differentiation of self and phubbing

One of the family patterns crucial for mental and physical well-being is differentiation of self. In this study, our aim was to investigate its impact on the phenomenon of phubbing—where individuals prioritize smartphones over in-person interactions. The prevalence of phubbing behavior has risen substantially in tandem with the increased adoption of smartphones. The study investigated familial, interpersonal, and personal factors that could potentially contribute to the escalation of phubbing behaviors. It was hypothesized that differentiation of self would be associated with phubbing through the mediation of fear of missing out, romantic relationship satisfaction, and loneliness in intimate relationships. We also expected gender differences in the study variables. A sample of 431 young adults, with an average age of 29 (M = 29.05, SD = 9.14), completed the DSI-R, Phubbing, FoMO, ENRICH, and LIRS questionnaires online. Results indicated that fear of missing out mediated the relationship between three dimensions of differentiation of self—emotional reactivity, emotional cutoff, and fusion with others—and phubbing behavior. However, the expected mediation by romantic relationship satisfaction and loneliness in intimate relationships did not reach significance, although these variables were found to be associated with differentiation of self. Women reported higher levels of phubbing behavior, emotional reactivity, and fusion with others, whereas men reported higher levels of I-position. We conclude that fear of missing out may serve as a catalyst, triggering anxiety in individuals, which in turn drives them to adopt phubbing as a coping mechanism. Moreover, individuals with lower levels of differentiation of self appear to be at increased risk of engaging in phubbing behaviors through the mediation of fear of missing out.

Emotional Expression and Women's Career Development in the Workplace: Gender Stereotypes and Gender Differences

This paper investigates the negative and positive effects of emotional expression in the workplace on women's career development, and finds that the antecedent variables are gender stereotypes and differences in gender expectations in the female workplace. Through the method of literature review, it is found that there is a lack of analysis of the mechanisms and pathways to intervene in gender stereotyping in the workplace, and it is suggested that in the future, we should explore how to realize career development from the perspective of women's self-development.

Women's and men's experiences with participative decision-making at workplace and organizational levels.

The concept of participative decision-making (PDM) has been well established as a positive organizational factor, and has recently gained attention as a measure of gender inclusivity in the workplace. However, findings regarding gender differences in the experiences of PDM are inconclusive. This study hypothesized that women perceive themselves as less influential than men at the organizational level rather than at the workplace level. Furthermore, the study explored whether these assumed gender differences depend on the gender typicality of occupational positions and professions. We expected gender differences to be more pronounced for male-typed positions and professions (e.g., leadership, engineer) compared to non-male-typed occupational positions and professions (e.g., non-leadership, nurse). Data on experiences with participative decision-making at the workplace and organizational levels were drawn from a large representative Swedish survey (N = 10,500; 60% women). Results showed that women experienced being less influential than men at the organizational level, whereas the experiences of women and men did not differ at the workplace level. The gender difference at the organizational level was not related to the gender typicality of position and profession. The findings highlight the importance of the inclusion of both women and men in strategic, large-scale decisions for achieving gender equality at work.

Gender Inequality in Workplace: A Perspective of Gender Narrative

The prejudice and discrimination toward femininity lasted from the ancient world to today's workplace. Women frequently faced judgments, with a particular focus on anti-feminity, this study explores the gender differences in career expectations, the unequal distribution of career opportunities, and disparities in unemployment rates which all contribute to this pervasive imbalance. Firstly, this research investigates how societal norms and stereotypes shape gendered career expectations. By analyzing the pressures that steer individuals towards specific career paths, it becomes evident that femininity was often marginalized, leading to limited career choices for women. Secondly, this research examines the unequal distribution of career opportunities, revealing how institutional and structural factors perpetuate gender disparities. The scarcity of women in leadership positions and male-dominated industries further entrenches the absence of femininity within workplace narratives. Lastly, the study uncovers the gender-based disparities in unemployment rates, highlighting the systemic biases that hinder women's access to stable employment, particularly during economic downturns.

Similar, but Different: Gender Differences in Working Time Arrangements and the Work–Life Interface

Gender inequities can be partly traced back to gender differences in working time arrangements. In fact, it is established knowledge that women as compared to men are more (less) likely to work part-time (overtime). Based on social role theory, however, we also expect gender differences among part-time and overtime workers, such that women and men differ in why they work part-time or overtime. In a preregistered and highly powered study conducted in Germany (N = 3,844–17,361, depending on the analysis), we observed that, on average, women were more likely than men to work part-time (i.e., fewer than 35 hours per week) because of personal or family obligations. Moreover, in comparison to men, women were less likely to work overtime (i.e., at least two hours per week) to attain additional income, but more likely to work overtime to step in for colleagues. Altogether, people had “gendered” reasons to work certain hours. Furthermore, as people’s paid working time arrangements are intertwined with their lives outside of the workplace, we examined women’s and men’s work–life interface and observed that women (as compared to men) deemed it less acceptable to be available for work-related issues during leisure time. We discuss implications for future theorizing and for practitioners who aim to design work schedules that consider the different lived experiences of women and men.

Cultural persistence or change? Gender differences in educational expectations of first and second-generation immigrants in Italy

This paper analyzes whether cultural heritage determines gender differences in educational expectations to go to university of first- and second-generation immigrants in Italy. The analysis relies on the “Integration of Second-Generation Survey” (INTEG2GEN) carried out by the Italian Institute of Statistics (ISTAT) in 2015. INTEG2GEN is a national representative survey of students living in Italy and attending lower and upper secondary school. Our findings suggest that parents’ cultural background plays a non-negligible role for their daughters’ and sons’ expectations. Nevertheless, there is a gender difference in the way they react to it. Males are more sensitive to cultural orientations towards education. Females are more responsive to gender inequality issues and tend to conform to gender roles deemed appropriate according to their cultural tradition. Nevertheless, females seem more open to changes and opportunities they face in the new country.

Gender Differences in Expectations in Risk Situations

ABSTRACT The purpose of the present article is to examine differences between men and women in terms of expectations of conduct (courage, risk-taking and providing protection), and to examine the validity and reliability of a simple and short measure of the obligations and rights in risk situation. The study was based on a community sample of 420 Muslim students. The findings show that both genders believe that men, more than women, ought to be brave, take risks and protect their female partners, but this does not necessarily mean that they are entitled to dominance and control in risk situations. Theoretical and empirical implications of the theoretical framework, the measurement and the findings were discussed. Public significance The present study highlights aspects that have not received direct scientific attention, despite their great social importance. The study offers a theoretical and operational framework that will provide a basis for further research, which will deepen the knowledge and understanding of gender differences in basic roles in different life contexts and in different socio-cultural environments. This also could contribute to better understanding of deviant behavior criteria in scope of culture presence.

Gender differences in metabolic syndrome and its components in southern china using a healthy lifestyle index: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundLifestyle changes are important for the prevention and management of metabolic syndrome (MetS), but studies that focus on gender differences in the lifestyle risk factors of MetS are limited in China. This research aimed to generate a healthy lifestyle index (HLI) to assess the behavioral risk factors of MetS and its components, and to explore the gender differences in HLI score and other influencing factors of MetS.MethodsA convenience sample of 532 outpatients were recruited from a general hospital in Changsha, China. The general information and HLI scores [including physical activity (PA), diet, smoking, alcohol use, and body mass index (BMI)] of the subjects were collected through questionnaires, and each patient’s height, weight, waist circumference, and other physical signs were measured. Logistic regression analysis was used to analyze the risk factors of MetS and its components.ResultsThe prevalence of MetS was 33.3% for the whole sample (46.3% in males and 23.3% in females). The risk of MetS increased with age, smoking, unhealthy diet, and BMI in males and with age and BMI in females. Our logistic regression analysis showed that lower HLI (male: OR = 0.838,95%CI = 0.757–0.929; female: OR = 0.752, 95%CI = 0.645–0.876) and older age (male: OR = 2.899, 95%CI = 1.446–5.812; female: OR = 4.430, 95%CI = 1.640–11.969) were independent risk factors of MetS, for both sexes.ConclusionLow levels of HLI and older ages were independent risk factors of MetS in both males and females. The association between aging and MetS risk was stronger in females, while the association between unhealthy lifestyles and MetS risk was stronger in males. Our findings reinforced the expected gender differences in MetS prevalence and its risk factors, which has implications for the future development of gender-specific MetS prevention and intervention programs.

Too easy, too hard, or just right: Lifespan age differences and gender effects on task difficulty choices

In everyday life, individuals often need to make choices about the difficulty level of tasks they wish to perform. Here, we investigate age- and gender-related differences in the monitoring of discrepancies between the difficulty of a given task and one’s own performance level, and in the likelihood to select task difficulties that match one’s performance level. Male and female children, teenagers, younger adults, and older adults (total N = 160) were asked to play a modified version of the BINGO game. Task difficulty was operationalized as the number of cards played simultaneously. We expected that (a) discrepancies between individuals’ self-selected difficulty levels and their objectively assessed maximum manageable task difficulty (MMTD) would be lowest in early adulthood; (b) children and teenagers, on average, would select relatively difficult task difficulties; and (c) males would overestimate their performance levels, on average, to a greater extent than females. As predicted, younger adults selected task difficulties closest to their MMTD. All other age groups, including older adults, chose task difficulties above their MMTD. The expected gender differences were restricted to children, with boys showing more pronounced performance overestimations than girls. Children and teenagers fluctuated more in their difficulty choices than adults, and many of them, especially boys, occasionally chose difficulty levels far beyond their performance capabilities. We conclude that task-difficulty choices are an interesting topic for lifespan studies. Future research should systematically vary the physical risk involved in a task, and also include the presence of peers.

Gender Differences in Inflation Expectations: Recent Evidence from India

This study investigates gender disparities in inflation expectations in India using data from the Reserve Bank of India’s Households’ Inflation Expectations Survey (March 2011 to September 2022). To determine these differences, the authors analyze the expectations of future prices for various categories including food products, nonfood products, household durables, housing, and general prices for both a short-term horizon (the next three months) and a long-term horizon (one year ahead). The authors employ independent sample t test, ordinary least square (OLS) regression, and ordinal logistic regression (OLOGIT) models to assess the average inflation expectations disparities between genders. The results demonstrate a significant relationship between gender and inflation expectations, with the findings indicating that, on average, females exhibit higher inflation expectations compared to males.

Development and Validation of the COVID-19 Worries and Fears Scale.

Objectives: How individuals perceive the risk of COVID-19 influences their mental health and protective behaviors. Therefore, the development of an instrument to capture COVID-19-related worries and fears is relevant. This study aims to develop and validate the CoV-WoFe to measure COVID-19-related worries and fears. Methods: An online questionnaire was completed by 593 participants during Christmas 2020 and by 328 participants during Summer 2021, from which 88 participants formed a longitudinal sample. Results: Analyses confirmed a robust adjustment for consistency over time and a gender-invariant bifactorial structure. Factor 1 represented worry about the health consequences of COVID-19 and Factor 2 represented the perceived physiological symptoms associated with fear of COVID-19. Construct validity was evidenced by: the expected relations between the CoV-WoFe and other theoretically related constructs; the serial mediating role of both dimensions in the relationship that security values establish with protective behaviors against COVID-19 and with anxiety; and the expected gender differences in the Cov-WoFe. Conclusion: The CoV-WoFe represents a short, valid, reliable, gender-invariant tool that is easy to apply in both the health professional and research context to assessCOVID-19-related worries and fears, which are variables of relevance for spread of the virus and for mental health.

Gender Differences in Wage Expectations and Negotiation

Gender Differences in Wage Expectations and Negotiation

Racial and Ethnic Differences in Sleep Duration Life Expectancies among Men and Women in Mid-to-Late Life.

This analysis documents U.S. racial/ethnic and gender differences in life expectancies with different self-reported sleep durations among adults aged 50 and older. We used self-reported sleep duration and linked mortality information from the 2004-2015 National Health Interview Survey (n = 145,015) to calculate Sullivan Method Lifetables for life expectancies with different self-reported sleep duration states: short (≤6hours), optimal (seven to 8hours), and long (≥9hours) sleep duration per-day by race/ethnicity and gender. Non-Hispanic Black men (35.8%, 95% CI: 34.8%-36.8%) and women (36.5%, 95% CI: 35.7%-37.1%) exhibited the highest proportion of years lived with short sleep duration followed by Hispanic men (31.1%, 95% CI: 29.9%-32.3%) and women (34.1%, 95% CI: 33.1%-35.1%) and Non-Hispanic White men (25.8%, 95% CI: 25.4%-26.2%) and women (27.4%, 95% CI: 27.0%-27.7%). These results highlight how race/ethnic inequality in sleep duration and life expectancy are intertwined among older adults in the U.S.

‘Well, actually’: investigating mansplaining in the modern workplace

Abstract This mixed-method investigation examines the nature, prevalence, and correlates of mansplaining in modern workplaces. In Study 1, we scrape Twitter and conduct a thematic analysis of 2,312 tweets. These findings ground a comprehensive definition of mansplaining and propose six items for measurement. In Study 2, we quantitatively investigate mansplaining experiences at work (n = 499), finding that almost every participant had experienced mansplaining in the previous year. Expected gender differences emerged among mansplaining perpetrators and targets, yet men were not the only perpetrators, nor were women the only targets. Confirmatory factor analysis results support the possibility that mansplaining is a second factor of incivility. Further, mansplaining predicted significant variance in outcomes such as job satisfaction and turnover intentions above and beyond incivility. This research underscores that mansplaining is more than a social media phenomenon. Rather, it is a form of gendered mistreatment with implications for scholars and practitioners alike.

Gender Differences in Experiences and Expectations of Hemodialysis in a Frail and Seriously Unwell Patient Population

Surprisingly few studies have explored the experiences of seriously unwell people with kidney disease on hemodialysis therapy: we conducted a mixed-methods study to investigate gender differences in illness experience, symptom burden, treatment considerations or expectations in this cohort. Seriously unwell people on hemodialysis (1-year mortality risk of >20%) at 3 hospital-based units were invited to take part in a structured interview or to complete the same questions independently via a questionnaire. A total of 54 people took part (36 males, 18 females); data analysis was undertaken using a thematic approach. "Desire to keep living" is the most important and basic thought process when starting dialysis. Fear also predominates influencing risk assessment and decision-making. Once fear is managed, there are physical, social, practical and emotional issues to rationalize, but choice only seems possible if shared decision-making is part of the consultation.Gender differences were seen in perceived hopes and expectations of treatment. Males were more likely to prioritize achievement of physical goals, with females prioritizing a wish to feel well. Both genders reported significantly higher symptom scores than their health care provider perceived, however this difference was more marked in females. Dialysis regret existed in >50% of participants and 6 out of 54 (11%) stated that they would have chosen no dialysis at all. Females were more likely to report feeling depressed (P= 0.001). Different genders approach treatment decisions and prioritize treatment expectations differently. Recognizing this will allow personalized care plans to be developed and improve the experiences of seriously unwell people with kidney disease.