Gender Differences In Blood Pressure Research Articles

Abstract MP38: Gender Differences In Temporal Trends Of Cardiovascular Health In Young US Adults

Introduction: Favorable cardiovascular health (CVH) in young adulthood has been associated with lower future cardiovascular risk. Characterizing the gender-stratified temporal trends of CVH among younger adults may better inform opportunities for earlier prevention. Therefore, we assessed persistence of gender differences in overall CVH and individual component in young US adults. Methods: Based on the National Health Examination and Nutrition Survey data 2007-2018, we identified 10,206 individuals aged 20 to 39 years. Gender and sociodemographic measures were self-reported. The CVH was assessed based on the American Heart Association’s Life’s Simple 7 metrics. Changes in the mean number of ideal CVH components (out of 7) and the ideal proportion of individual component were calculated using weighted linear regression analysis. Changes in gender differences were assessed with an interaction term between gender and calendar year. Results: The mean [SD] age of the study population was 29.3 [5.8] years, and 5,260 (51.5%) individuals were female. Between 2007 and 2018, the mean [95% CI] ideal CVH component remained unchanged in both females (4.40 [4.27-4.52] to 4.48 [4.34-4.61]; P value=0.94) and males (3.97 [3.86-4.08] to 3.93 [3.76-4.10]; P value=0.87) with stable gender differences ( P for interaction=0.94). Nonetheless, gender differences in blood pressure widened ( P for interaction <0.001) as ideal blood pressure decreased (54.0% to 46.9%; P value=0.03) only in males. Concurrently, the proportion of females with ideal physical activity level declined (57.3% to 49.4; P value=0.04) whereas stagnant in males ( P for interaction=0.03). Non-smoking increased in females (64.1% to 70.5%; P value=0.05), otherwise unchanged in males ( P for interaction=0.01). Conclusions: Gender disparities in CVH have persisted with exacerbated differences in blood pressure, physical activity, and smoking. These insights provide opportunities to promote equitable CVH and to address disparities.

Sex differences in hypertension: lessons from spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR).

Although numerous clinical and experimental studies have clearly identified a sexual dimorphism in blood pressure control, the mechanism(s) underlying gender differences in blood pressure remain unclear. Over the past two decades, numerous laboratories have utilized the spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) as an experimental model of essential hypertension to increase our understanding of the mechanisms regulating blood pressure in males and females. Previous work by our group and others have implicated that differential regulation of adrenergic receptors, the renin–angiotensin system, oxidative stress, nitric oxide bioavailability and immune cells contribute to sex differences in blood pressure control in SHR. The purpose of this review is to summarize previous findings to date regarding the mechanisms of blood pressure control in male versus female SHR.

Gender differences in blood pressure and body composition in schoolchildren ascendants from Amerindian and European

ABSTRACT Background: In spite of there are a wide knowledge of the prevalence of hypertension in adult, there is poor information on schoolchildren of different ethnicity and gender. Aim: To compare the levels of blood pressure and other cardiometabolic risk factors for hypertension between schoolchildren of different gender and ethnicity. Material and methods: In a cross-sectional study, 540 schoolchildren (6–13 years) ascendants from a Chilean public school population were analysed by ethnicity and gender in four groups (Mapuches N = 55; European boys N = 199, and Mapuches N = 64, and European girls N = 222). The study included the measurement of cardiovascular (systolic and diastolic blood pressure) as main outcomes, as well as other cardiovascular (resting heart rate), body composition (body mass, BMI, waist circumference, fat mass, muscle mass), muscle strength (handgrip strength of dominant, non-dominant, and mean handgrip strength) as additional cardiometabolic outcomes. Results: The systolic blood pressure was significantly higher in Mapuches girls 126 ± 4 vs. their European counterparts 119 ± 3 mmHg, P < .002, as well as diastolic blood pressure, was higher in Mapuches girls 82 ± 5 vs. European girls 74 ± 3 mmHg, P < .0001. There were more ‘prehypertensive’ Mapuches girls 10 (15.6%) vs. European peers 22 (9.9%) at P < .0001, and the ‘hypertension’ was significantly more prevalent in Mapuches boys 19 (34.5%) vs. European peers 39 (19.4%) at P < .0001, as well as in Mapuches girls 16 (25%) vs. European peers 33 (14.9%) at P < .0001. The ‘obesity’ was less prevalent in Mapuches 10 (18.2%) vs. European boys 55 (27.4%) at P < .0001. The waist circumference was high in European 74 ± 4 vs. Mapuches 67 ± 6 cm, P < .012 in boys, although, waist circumference was high in Mapuches girls 75 ± 5 vs. European peers 71 ± 3 cm, P < .021. There were higher levels of muscle mass in Mapuches boys 19.5 ± 12 vs. European peers 17.1 ± 4 kg, P < .0001. Conclusion: Mapuches girls show higher levels of systolic and diastolic BP than European girls, Mapuches boys and girls are more hypertensive than European peers, but are less obese than European schoolchildren peers. These cardiometabolic differences that are more detrimental for endemic ethnic Latinoamerican groups are in need to be explored further.

A15360 The gender differences of blood pressure management and antihypertensive therapy in aged generation

Objectives: Gender difference of blood pressure (BP) becomes smaller later in life. The prescription rate of antihypertensive drug classes and therapeutic responses may differ by gender, but gender differences of hypertension management in the postmenopausal age group are not clear. To clarify in elderly population if the rate of antihypertensive drug prescription and treated BP levels differ by gender. This retrospective, cross-sectional study analyzed 449 essential hypertensive patients over the age of 60 at Tokyo Women's Medical University Hospital Hypertension Clinic from April 2014 to March 2015. Methods: Office BP and anthropometric data were collected, and Defined Daily Dose (DDD) of antihypertensive drugs were calculated as defined by the World Health Organization. Results: Of all subjects (180 men and 269 women), 71% were on calcium channel blocker (CCB), and 63% were on renin-angiotensin system inhibitors (RAASi) including mineralocorticoid receptor blockers and direct renin inhibitor. There was no significant gender difference in systolic BP (SBP), diastolic BP (DBP), body mass index (BMI), total DDD. While there was no gender difference in SBP by drug class, DBP was significantly lower in women than men taking CCB (74.1 mmHg vs. 76.7 mmHg, 213 women, 144 men, p = 0.025) and also RAASi (73.7 mmHg vs. 76.7 mmHg, 167 women, 138 men, p = 0.019). DBP of obese (BMI > 25) men was significantly higher than obese women (74.0 mmHg vs. 79.7 mmHg, 55 women, 55 men, p = 0.004). Conclusion: In elderly essential hypertensive patients, there was no gender difference in BP level or medication dose except the DBP in those taking CCB, RAASi or with obesity. Elderly men may need more CCB and/or RAASi than women to control BP.

Neuropeptide Y-mediated sex- and afferent-specific neurotransmissions contribute to sexual dimorphism of baroreflex afferent function.

BackgroundMolecular and cellular mechanisms of neuropeptide-Y (NPY)-mediated gender-difference in blood pressure (BP) regulation are largely unknown.MethodsBaroreceptor sensitivity (BRS) was evaluated by measuring the response of BP to phenylephrine/nitroprusside. Serum NPY concentration was determined using ELISA. The mRNA and protein expression of NPY receptors were assessed in tissue and single-cell by RT-PCR, immunoblot, and immunohistochemistry. NPY was injected into the nodose while arterial pressure was monitored. Electrophysiological recordings were performed on nodose neurons from rats by patch-clamp technique.ResultsThe BRS was higher in female than male and ovariectomized rats, while serum NPY concentration was similar among groups. The sex-difference was detected in Y1R, not Y2R protein expression, however, both were upregulated upon ovariectomy and canceled by estrogen replacement. Immunostaining confirmed Y1R and Y2R expression in myelinated and unmyelinated afferents. Single-cell PCR demonstrated that Y1R expression/distribution was identical between A- and C-types, whereas, expressed level of Y2R was ∼15 and ∼7 folds higher in Ah- and C-types than A-types despite similar distribution. Activation of Y1R in nodose elevated BP, while activation of Y2R did the opposite. Activation of Y1R did not alter action potential duration (APD) of A-types, but activation of Y2R- and Y1R/Y2R in Ah- and C-types frequency-dependently prolonged APD. N-type ICa was reduced in A-, Ah- and C-types when either Y1R, Y2R, or both were activated. The sex-difference in Y1R expression was also observed in NTS.ConclusionsSex- and afferent-specific expression of Neuropeptide-Y receptors in baroreflex afferent pathway may contribute to sexual-dimorphic neurocontrol of BP regulation.

Gender differences in blood pressure and electrocardiography parameters in response to antihypertensive treatment

Gender differences in blood pressure and electrocardiography parameters in response to antihypertensive treatment

Sex differences in blood pressure control in SHR: lack of a role for EETs.

The mechanisms responsible for the gender difference in blood pressure (BP) in humans are not clear. Over the past several years we have studied the spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) as a model of sex differences in BP control. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that renal vascular and microsomal epoxyeicosatrienoic acid (EET) levels are higher in females than males, and increasing vascular EETs by blocking epoxide hydrolase with AUDA will reduce BP more in males than females. Renal vascular and microsomal EETs were higher in female SHR than males. Mean arterial pressure (MAP by telemetry) was higher in males than females during the baseline period of 6 days, and although the epoxide hydrolase inhibitor, AUDA, given for 10 days increased renal microvascular EETs in both groups, AUDA did not affect MAP in either group. These data suggest that EETs do not contribute to the sex differences in hypertension in young SHR.

Individual and Gender Differences in Subjective and Objective Indices of Pain: Gender, Fear of Pain, Pain Catastrophizing and Cardiovascular Reactivity

According to fear-avoidance models of pain perception, heightened fear of pain may increase disruptive effects of pain; however, the extent to which this affects self-reported pain severity versus physiological indices of pain is not well delineated. The current study examined self-report measures and physiological indices of pain during a cold pressor (CP) task. Individual differences in fear of pain and pain catastrophizing were also assessed via questionnaire. The primary aim of the current study was to examine the extent to which individual differences associated with fear and catastrophizing in response to pain influences subjective and physiological measures of pain. A secondary aim was to examine gender differences associated with response to pain. Average subjective pain ratings were higher for females than males. In contrast, males exhibited higher systolic and diastolic reactivity in response to the CP task relative to females, as well as failure to fully recover to baseline levels. Follow-up correlational analyses revealed that subjective pain ratings were positively associated with fear of pain in both sexes, but were not associated with cardiovascular indices. These results suggest that fear of pain and pain catastrophizing do not influence cardiovascular responses to induced pain. Further research is necessary in order to determine whether these gender differences in blood pressure and heart rate response profiles are due to biological or psychosocial influences. Results support the notion that fear of pain increases subjective pain ratings, but does not influence cardiovascular responses during CP pain-induction.

Postmenopausal hypertension and sodium sensitivity.

It has been well established that women generally have lower incidence rates of hypertension than men at similar ages and these differences may vary with age. It also has been observed in many studies that after menopause, blood pressure (BP) increases in women to levels even higher than in men. The lack of estrogens may not be suggested as the only component involved in the development of postmenopausal hypertension. Thus, in this mini-review, the possible mechanisms by which sex hormones may influence the BP are discussed. This review also examines the renal regulatory mechanisms for gender differences in BP and explores the effects of salt intake on BP (salt-sensitivity) in pre and post-menopausal women.Estrogen has been shown to stimulate nitric oxide (NO) production, thus female sex hormones have a beneficial effect on BP control. Evidences that angiotensin type 2 receptor (AT2R) is up-regulated by estrogen support the favorable effects on BPs in women than men. The kidney plays an integral role in the regulation of arterial pressure through the mechanism of pressure-natriuresis, which has been shown to be modulated by the RAS. The prevalence of salt-sensitivity increases with age and low-salt diets has shown to help reduce systolic BP (SBP) and diastolic BP. While oral hormone replacement therapy has yielded only a neutral or minimal effect on the elevation of SBP, both the transdermal route replacement and a novel progestin with anti-aldosterone activity (drospirenone) has also shown to reduce SBP.

Gender Differences in Blood Pressure–Related Hypoalgesia in a General Population: The Tromsø Study

An inverse association between resting blood pressure (BP) and acute pain sensitivity is well documented. Whether BP-related hypoalgesia differs by gender is unclear from prior work. Whether it increases proportionally with BP throughout the full BP range is also unknown. We examined BP-related hypoalgesia in a general population sample (n = 10,371, aged 30–87) of equal gender distribution reflecting the extremely low through hypertensive BP range. Resting BP was assessed and individuals participated in a standardized cold pressor test, providing pain ratings every 9 seconds. For systolic BP (SBP), a significant SBP × Gender interaction was observed on mean pain ratings (P < .001). Females displayed significant BP-related hypoalgesia (P < .001), with males showing a 38% smaller effect (P < .001). A similar DBP × Gender interaction was also observed (P < .05). Spline regression indicated a significant (P < .001) change in slope of the SBP–pain association at 140 mmHg. Among individuals with lower resting SBP (<140/90), increasing hypoalgesia with increasing SBP levels was observed (P < .001), with no further increases in those with higher BP (≥140/90; P > .10). This is the first large-scale study to confirm past results suggesting that BP-related hypoalgesia differs by gender; that is, females exhibited greater hypoalgesia. BP-related hypoalgesia appears subject to ceiling effects in the hypertensive BP range. PerspectiveFemales show greater BP-related hypoalgesia than males, highlighting gender differences in endogenous antinociceptive systems. Extent of BP-related hypoalgesia does not increase further once resting pressures reach the hypertensive range, suggesting persistent maximal demands on these antinociceptive systems among hypertensive individuals.

Gender difference in blood pressure, blood sugar, and cholesterol in young adults with comparable routine physical exertion

Context:Gender differences in the risk of developing non-communicable diseases (NCD) are a matter of debate. The susceptibility of a woman to NCD should be evaluated taking into consideration the social factors that limit the physical activity among women. It will be interesting to note what will happen if women are allowed to take part in physical exercise to the extent of men.Aims:To find out the gender difference in the pattern of the clinical and biochemical indices related to NCD in young adults with comparable daily physical activity.Settings and Design:This is an institution-based cross-sectional study and the setting was Lekshmibhai National College for Physical Education (LNCPE), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India.Materials and Methods:The study participants were students who were regularly involved in more than three hours of physical exercise daily at least for the previous one year. The information on socio-demography, anthropometry, and blood pressure was recorded. Blood samples were taken for laboratory examination.Results:Out of 150 students registered, 126 (84%) in the age group of 17 to 25 years who fulfilled the eligibility criteria were studied. Fifty-five (43.7%) of them were women. Systolic blood pressure, fasting blood sugar, and low-density lipoprotein were found significantly lower in women. No significant difference was noted in the case of diastolic blood pressure and total cholesterol.Conclusion:Gender differences exist for NCD risk factors among young adults with comparable physical activity and physical exertion seems to be more protective for females.

Female mRen2.Lewis Exhibit Higher Intrarenal Renin But Lower Renal and Circulating Angiotensin II Than Male Littermates

The mRen2.Lewis rat (mRen), a congenic hypertensive model, exhibits marked gender differences in blood pressure and tissue injury. Male mRen have 2‐fold higher plasma and renal levels of Angiotensin II (Ang II) compared to female mRen or Lewis controls. Plasma Ang I was also higher in male mRen, but renal Ang I content was significantly reduced. Cortical ACE activity was similar for male and females, however, renal neprilysin protein was 10 fold higher in female mRen possibly contributing to the metabolism of intrarenal Ang II. The present studies further characterized gender differences in the mRen focusing on the expression of renin. Rat renal renin levels (pH 6.5) were 55% [M: 3.6±1 vs. F: 8.0±2 μg AngI/mg/hr; p≤0.01] and 80% [M: 0.5±0.1 vs. F: 2.9±0.3 μg AngI/mg/hr; p≤0.01] lower in males versus females for Lewis and mRen rats, respectively. Female rats also displayed higher mouse renin levels (pH 8.5). Correlation analysis of all groups revealed a negative association between renal renin and plasma Ang II [r2=0.4, p≤0.05], but not renal Ang II [p≥0.05]. Negative feedback of renal renin is evident in the mRen strain, although the mechanism for gender differences in renin regulation is not known. Moreover, the greater Ang II content in the male mRen kidneys may arise from a nonrenal source. Supported by NIH grants HL56973 &amp; HL51952.

In vivo administration of doxazosin in rats highly decreases serum circulating levels of testosterone through a mechanism involving the testicular renin–angiotensin system

Men are at greater risk of cardiovascular and renal diseases than women. Several hypertensive rat models also exhibit gender differences in blood pressure. Although the mechanisms responsible for these gender differences are not clear, androgens have been shown to promote hypertension. Testosterone is produced by Leydig cells under the regulation of catecholamines acting through both alpha- and beta-adrenoceptors. Some investigators have postulated a putative role of angiotensin II (Ang II) in modulating the action of gonadotropin in Leydig cells, inhibiting testosterone production. In the present work, we analysed the potential mechanism by which the testicular renin-angiotensin system (RAS) decreases the serum circulating levels of testosterone after the in vivo administration of the long-acting selective alpha(1)-adrenergic receptor antagonist doxazosin. RAS was analysed through assessment of the activity of its proteolytic regulatory enzymes. We can conclude that the testicular testosterone production, at least in rat, is regulated by catecholamines through a mechanism involving alpha(1)-adrenergic receptors and RAS, with a putative role for Ang III. Because doxazosin is usually used as a pharmacological therapy in the treatment of hypertension and benign prostatic hyperplasia, our results could also indicate that its benefits are due, at least in part, to decreased serum circulating levels of testosterone.

Ambulatory Blood Pressure and Family History of Hypertension in Healthy Men and Women

Family history of hypertension is a primary predictor of high blood pressure (BP). This study attempted to determine whether there is a gradual increase in BP between individuals with two hypertensive parents, one hypertensive parent, and normotensive parents and whether this increase is apparent with both ambulatory and casual BP assessments in men as well as in women. A total of 220 healthy men and women, aged 22 to 50 years, completed two 24-h ambulatory BP sessions (one work day and one off work day). Based on family history information obtained from parents, three groups were formed: subjects with two hypertensive parents, one hypertensive parent, and normotensive parents. Work and off work days did not differ; analyses were based on mean values of the 2 days. Men with two hypertensive parents had higher daytime and night-time ambulatory BP than men with normotensive parents. Those with one hypertensive parent had intermediate BP levels. Ambulatory BP was not associated with family history in women. Also, men with one or two hypertensive parents had higher ambulatory BP than women with hypertensive parents, whereas offspring of normotensive parents exhibited no sex differences in BP. Elevated systolic and diastolic BP throughout the day and night seems to characterize men with two hypertensive parents. In evaluating the relationship between family history of hypertension and BP, it is important to use ambulatory BP measures, differentiate between individuals with one and with two hypertensive parents, and focus on gender differences in BP.

Androgen Receptor–Mediated Regulation of the α-Subunit of the Epithelial Sodium Channel in Human Kidney

Rodents studies suggest that androgens are involved in sex-specific differences in blood pressure. In humans, there is no difference in blood pressure between boys and girls, but after puberty, blood pressure increases more in men than in women. We investigated androgen-dependent regulation of the alpha-subunit of the epithelial sodium channel (alphaEnaC) in human kidney and in the human renal cell line immortalized human renal proximal tubular cell line (HKC-8). We used microarray technique to analyze androgen-dependent gene regulation and performed quantitative RT-PCR for verification. Promoter constructs for human alphaENaC were used in transfection studies to analyze the regulation by testosterone. We investigated the in vivo effect of testosterone on alphaENaC in a rat model and used the mouse collecting duct cell line M-1 for transepithelial electrophysiological measurements. The androgen receptor (AR) was expressed in male kidney and HKC-8 cells. AlphaENaC mRNA expression increased 2- to 3-fold after treatment with testosterone in HKC-8 cells. The induction by testosterone was completely blocked by adding the AR antagonist flutamide. Analysis of the alphaENaC promoter sequence identified a putative AR response element (ARE) located 140 nucleotides upstream from the transcription start site. HKC-8 cell transfection studies showed that testosterone directly upregulated gene expression via this ARE. In vivo, testosterone treatment of orchiectomized rats resulted in an increased renal alphaENaC mRNA expression. In testosterone-treated mouse M-1 cells, amiloride caused a significant stronger decrease in short circuit current than in control cells. These data show that alphaENaC expression is directly regulated by androgens in vitro and in vivo and highlight a potential mechanism explaining the reported gender differences in blood pressure.

Gender differences in blood pressure and heart rate in spontaneously hypertensive and Wistar‐Kyoto rats

1. In general, premenopausal women are known to have lower blood pressure than men and animal models have shown a similar sexual dimorphism. However, many studies in animals have been performed using anaesthetized or restrained models. Current experiments were conducted to investigate the relationships among resting heart rate, blood pressure and gender in conscious, unrestrained normotensive Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats and spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). 2. Biotelemetry transmitters were implanted in 6-month-old animals. Values for heart rate, diastolic blood pressure, systolic blood pressure and pulse pressure were recorded continuously at 10 min intervals after all animals recovered completely from surgery. 3. Normal circadian rhythms in heart rate were found in all rats, with no significant differences among the four groups; the circadian variation in blood pressure was evident in all groups, although much smaller. Heart rate was found to be higher in WKY female rats than in the other three groups. Male WKY rats, male SHR and female SHR had similar heart rates. Male SHR had significantly higher systolic and diastolic blood pressures than female SHR. Male and female WKY rats had similar diastolic blood pressure, but males had slightly higher systolic pressure than females. No significant difference in pulse pressure was found in WKY male and female rats. Male SHR showed significantly higher pulse pressure than female SHR at most times during the day. 4. In conclusion, these results indicate that hypertension is exacerbated in male SHR compared with females under conscious resting conditions and demonstrate that the higher heart rate observed in WKY female rats is not present in the SHR model.

Gender difference in response to thromboxane A2/prostaglandin H2 receptor antagonism in spontaneously hypertensive rats

Blood pressure (BP) is typically higher in men than in women. As in humans, BP is higher in male spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) than in female SHRs. The mechanism(s) responsible for the higher BP in men and male rats has not been elucidated. The present study tested the hypothesis that thromboxane and/or the thromboxane A(2)/prostaglandin H(2) receptor (TxR) plays a role in the gender difference in BP in SHRs. Male and female SHRs were treated with the TxR antagonist SQ29548 (2 microg/kg/min into the jugular vein) via minipump for 2 weeks; mean arterial pressure (MAP) and renal hemodynamic function were measured. To determine whether thromboxane played a role in the higher MAP in SHRs, male and female rats were treated with the thromboxane synthase inhibitor (TxI) furegrelate, 30 mug/kg/min, via minipump, for 2 weeks. MAP was reduced with TxR antagonism in male but not in female SHRs. In addition, TxR antagonism in males caused renal vasodilation with increases in glomerular filtration rate and renal plasma flow, and reductions in renal vascular resistance. In contrast, MAP was not affected by the TxI in either males or females. These data support a role for TxR, but not thromboxane, in mediating the gender difference in BP in SHRs.

Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors are Lower in African-American Vegans Compared to Lacto-Ovo-vegetarians

Objective: This study was undertaken to determine if African-American strict vegetarians (vegans) exhibit lower blood pressure (BP) and a more favorable serum lipid profile than their lacto-ovo vegetarian (LOV) counterparts, and if plasma ascorbic acid (AA) concentrations could explain any group differences in these cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors.Methods: Habitual dietary intake, anthropometric characteristics, blood pressure, and blood lipids and ascorbic acid concentrations were determined in African-American study participants (male vegans, n=14, age=45.6 years; male LOV, n=49, age=49.8; female vegans, n=31, age=51.1, female LOV, n=94, age=52.1) recruited from Seventh-Day Adventist Churches in several cities in the northeastern United States.Results: Body mass index (BMI) was significantly lower in the vegans (24.7±1.9 kg/m2) compared to LOV (26.4±0.45 kg/m2). There were no diet or gender differences in BP. Serum total cholesterol (3.75±0.12 vs. 4.51±0.10 mmol/L), LDL-cholesterol (2.06±0.13 vs. 2.65±0.09 mmol/l), and triglycerides (0.94±0.07 vs. 1.17±0.04 mmol/L) were significantly (p<0.05) lower in vegans compared to LOV, but there were no dietary group differences in HDL-C. The ratio of total to HDL-cholesterol was significantly lower in vegans than in LOV (3.0±0.13 vs. 3.7±0.13). There were no dietary group differences in plasma AA concentrations. However, in the entire sample, plasma AA was inversely associated with BP (SBP: r=−0.46, p<0.001, DBP: r=−0.32, p<0.001), but unrelated to the serum lipid concentrations.Conclusion: African-American vegans exhibit a more favorable serum lipid profile than lacto-ovovegetarians and plasma AA is inversely related to BP in African-American vegetarians but does not explain any of the differences in CVD risk factors between vegans and lacto-ovo vegetarians.