Gasoline Composition Research Articles

From pandemic protection to fuel production: Conversion of waste personal protective equipment-kits to high-quality hydro-processed fuels

The advent of COVID-19 has heightened apprehensions within the plastic waste management sector, particularly due to the increased adoption of single-use personal protective equipment (PPE)-kits at the domestic level and hospitals for protection against contagious diseases. This study addresses the issue by focusing on the hydro-processing of pyrolytic oil derived from thermally catalysed cracking of sterilized waste PPE kits. Employing an indigenously prepared FCC-supported Ni catalyst, the investigation delves into the effects of hydrogenation process parameters-temperature, catalyst composition, and catalyst loadings—maintaining a constant pressure of 70 bar H2 on fuel quality. Experimental results indicate that oil upgraded at a higher temperature of 240 °C with a 10% Ni/FCC catalyst at a 20 wt% loading demonstrates a remarkable selectivity of 76.51 wt% compounds in the C5-12 range, signifying a substantial gasoline fraction. The hydrogenated oil exhibits 57.05 wt% paraffinic content and a desirable 24.5 wt% yield of aromatics. GC-MS analysis reveals the presence of 25 wt% C5-7 iso-alkanes, 9.33 wt% toluene, and 12.35 wt% benzene, closely resembling the composition of commercial gasoline. Moreover, the physicochemical properties of the hydrogenated oil meet specifications for commercial gasoline suitable for automobile applications, making it a viable substitute or complement for blending with commercial gasoline.

VOC species emissions from gasoline direct injection (GDI) and port fuel injection (PFI) vehicles combusting different gasoline

Reducing VOCs can effectively reduce the concentration of PM2.5 and O3. Different gasoline compositions can impact the VOC species emitted by GDI and PFI vehicles. In this study, VOC species emitted from GDI and PFI vehicles combusting gasoline with different compositions (i.e., G1-market #92 gasoline, G2-high alkane gasoline, and G3-high heavy aromatic gasoline) were tested, and the influence of VOC species on O3 formation were investigated. The results indicated that the GDI vehicle consistently exhibited higher VOC emissions than the PFI vehicle in combusting three types of gasolines. The presence of short-chain alkanes and alkenes in the exhaust of combusting G2 and ethyne among the aromatics of combusting G3 resulted in higher VOC emissions from combusting G2 and G3 than from combusting G1 in the GDI vehicle. High alkane gasoline exhibited larger reductions of VOC emissions in the PFI vehicle but increased the proportions of propene, 1-butene, and ethyne emissions. High heavy aromatic gasoline increased the proportion of ethyne emissions in the GDI vehicle and increased the proportion of toluene, formaldehyde, and propane emissions in the PFI vehicle. The overall emission variation of ozone formation potential (OFP) was similar to those of VOC emissions. Alkene (C2-C6), monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (MAHs) and aldehydes had high contribution to O3 formation. Further research is needed to optimize fuel upgrading for GDI vehicles to ensure effective emission reduction. The results would help reduce vehicle emissions and provide support for achieving synergistic prevention and control of PM2.5 and O3 pollution.

Effectiveness of ethynylcyclohexanol and methyl-tert-amyl ether in increasing the octane number of gasoline compositions

The purpose of this study is to systematically compare the octane-enhancing properties of the novel tertiary acetylenic alcohol (TAA) ethinylcyclohexanol (ECH) with the conventional ether methyl-tert-amyl ether (MTAE) as a gasoline additive. ECH was synthesized using a modified Favorsky reaction and blended with gasoline compositions containing varying ratios of straight-run, delayed coking, and catalytic reforming fractions. The octane number was measured using a SHATOX SX-100K octanometer. The results indicate that ECH provides significantly higher boosts in research and motor octane numbers compared to MTAE for all blend compositions tested, even at high reformate content where knock resistance becomes less sensitive to oxygenates. The comparison shows that ECH has a superior octane response compared to MTAE, indicating its potential as an alternative gasoline octane booster.

Parametric and Nonparametric Approaches of Reid Vapor Pressure Prediction for Gasoline Containing Oxygenates: A Comparative Analysis Using Partial Least Squares, Nonlinear, and LOWESS Regression Modelling Strategies with Physical Properties

This study provides insights into the challenges involved in predicting the Reid vapor pressure (RVP) of gasoline-oxygenate blends (GOB), which is an important indicator of fuel quality and compliance with environmental and performance standards. Given the enormous variety of gasoline compositions and ratios available, there is a significant demand for a fast, straightforward, and cost-effective technique to predict RVP without relying on costly instruments or complicated spectral measurements that involve numerous input variables. A comparative performance analysis has been performed for different regression modelling strategies for predicting RVP in GOB, which is valuable for researchers and practitioners in the petroleum industry for saving time and money. Parametric and nonparametric approaches were compared using partial least squares regression (PLSR), nonlinear regression (NLR), and nonparametric regression (NPR) models. Locally weighted scatterplot smoothing (LOWESS) approach was applied to the NPR model. The gasoline’s physical characteristics (distillation curves and density) formed the basis for the analysis of these models’ performances. Acceptable error metrics have been reached for root mean square error of calibration and prediction (RMSEC and RMSEP) values, for the PLSR, NLR, and NPR models, which are 4.790, 6.235, 4.739, 6.149, 3.968, and 6.029, respectively, which are close for those reported in literature. The NPR model eliminates parametric constraints and allows for a different kind of data structure to emerge. The established models here demonstrate a sound ability to overcome barriers by omitting the use of inconvenient spectral measurements to save expense and simplify data calibration, making them a promising approach for RVP detection of GOB. This finding aids in the development of more accurate RVP prediction models and contributes to the optimization of fuel formulations.

Method for reducing aromatic hydrocarbons in composition of gasoline

Method for reducing aromatic hydrocarbons in composition of gasoline

Reduced Carbon Intensity of Ethanol Blend Gasoline

<div>Tank-to-wheels (TTW) CO<sub>2</sub> reduction for ethanol blends is determined from either gasoline composition or vehicle exhaust measurements. Fuels are characterized using a carbon intensity (CI), which is the ratio of carbon (as CO<sub>2</sub> mass) in the fuel to the net heating value. Our objective is to assess changes in CI of market gasoline with varying ethanol content that can be used to appreciate change in vehicle tailpipe greenhouse gases (GHG) in response to policy controlling the ethanol level in market fuels. Ethanol has both a reduced carbon content and a reduced net (lower) heating value relative to petroleum species, with a CI slightly lower than that of typical petroleum gasoline. However, ethanol blending offers additional CI reduction because it enables a reduction of aromatics in the petroleum blendstock for oxygenate blending (BOB) while maintaining octane rating of the blend. Aromatics have a CI about 20% higher than paraffins. The primary refinery option for aromatic reduction is through lower severity or throughput for the gasoline reformer, which ultimately reduces CI in the BOB and the finished blend. Expected gasoline market blends were projected by developing a model that addressed US refining and blending in response to octane requirements. A TTW blending CI, or BCI, for ethanol is proposed to describe the total CI reduction in the finished blend enabled by the ethanol. The ethanol BCI was found to average at 59 gCO<sub>2</sub>/MJ for E10, E15, and E20 (10%, 15%, and 20% ethanol by volume) market fuels in this study. This is substantially below the ethanol chemical CI of 71.0 gCO<sub>2</sub>/MJ and petroleum CI of 73.5 g CO<sub>2</sub>/MJ due to the enabling of aromatic reduction. E10 in comparison to E0 (purely petroleum) is estimated to offer a national US tailpipe CO<sub>2</sub> reduction of 16.6 billion kg annually.</div>

Effectiveness of methyl tert-butyl ether and ethynylcyclohexanol on increasing the octane number of gasoline compositions of straightrun gasoline + reforming

One of the ways to expand the production of high-octane unleaded gasoline is the use of oxygen-containing components (oxygenates). The addition of oxygenates increases the detonation resistance, especially of light fractions, the completeness of gasoline combustion, reduces fuel consumption and reduces the toxicity of exhaust gases. It was found that such an amount of oxygenates, despite their lower calorific value compared to gasoline, does not adversely affect the energy performance of engines. Oxygen-containing additives are complex and simple esters of monocarboxylic acids, higher alcohols, oxidized hydrocarbon fractions containing mixtures of acids, alcohols and esters, and oxyethylated compounds. Because of its high octane number, which allows the compression ratio to be increased to 16, methanol is used to fuel racing motorcycles and cars.The effect of ethynylcyclohexanol (ECH) and methyl tret-butyl ether (MTBE) on increasing the octane number of gasoline compositions has been evaluated by increasing the octane number of a 50:50 and 20:80 mixture of straight-run gasoline and reforming gasoline. It has been shown that ECH is an effective oxygen-containing additive (oxygenate) for increasing the octane number of gasoline compositions, compared with MTBE.

Evaluation of Performance Improvement of Gasoline Fuels by Adding Propanol, Ethanol, and Diisopropyl Ether along with Metal Oxides of CeO2 and Fe2O3

Many studies focusing on the composition of gasoline with any type of fuel additives have shown that the overall engine performance has a significant impact on reducing emissions. In this research work, ethanol, isopropanol, and diisopropyl ether as oxygenated additive with cerium oxide (CeO2) and iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) as metal nanoparticles were combined with pure gasoline. Due to the more oxygen they have in their structure, these alcohol additives reduce pollutants and complete combustion. Metal nanoparticles also improve the performance of the engine due to the proper potential. To check the efficiency of the new fuel, a four-stroke engine connected to a dynamometer and an analyzer tested different conditions: speed of 1500 and 2000 rpm and loading percentage of 30 and 40%. Analyzed data include the engine power, and the amount of CO, CO2, HC, and NOx released. The power of the engine on gasoline fuel was 14.43 at 1500 rpm, and once the test was repeated with mixed fuel with additives, it increased to 17.5, which indicates an improvement in engine performance. The amount of CO emissions at 1500 rpm with gasoline fuel was 3.25, and once repeating the test with the same engine rpm with mixed fuel, it decreased to 1.68. The amount of CO2 at 1500 rpm with gasoline fuel was 3.8 and repeating the test with mixed gasoline, it was 5.7. The amount of HC emission with gasoline was 65, and it was 62 when tested with mixed fuel. The amount of NOx released in comparison of gasoline fuel with mixed fuel reached from 264 to 533. The performance improvement and pollutant emissions are fully described in the conclusion section. The analyzed data were calculated and transformed into a model. Among the additives used, isopropanol and CeO2 nanoparticles had better results in optimizing the fuel, reducing the pollutants, and increasing the engine performance. The optimization results show that the use of isopropanol (5%) and CeO2 (1.39 wt. %) as well as diisopropyl ether (4 wt. %) at high engine speed (1504.97 rpm) can be improved engine performance and reduce exhaust gas emissions.

Reactive adsorption desulfurization of FCC gasoline over self-sulfidation adsorbent

NiSO4/ZnO-Al2O3-SiO2 adsorbent, as a novel reactive adsorption desulfurization (RADS)adsorbent, has self-sulfidation ability and high desulfurization performance when treating model fuel. However, the RADS performance of the adsorbent under FCC gasoline feedstock is not well understood. Here, we compare the performance of the adsorbent under FCC gasoline with model fuel to test the effect of the hydrocarbon composition of the feedstock. The complex composition of FCC gasoline makes it sensitive to the nickel loading amount of the adsorbent. Under the influence of specific surface area and pore structure, the adsorbent loaded with 3 wt% nickel shows better desulfurization activity when treating FCC gasoline. As hydrocarbons in FCC gasoline compete with sulfur compounds for active Ni sites, the reaction conditions have been tested and optimized to achieve deep desulfurization while maintaining low olefin loss to ensure the octane number of the product. By experimental tests and characterization, it has been proved that NiSx and NiO acted as active Ni sites of the adsorbent. Based on these observations, the mechanism of RADS of FCC gasoline over NiSO4/ZnO-Al2O3-SiO2 adsorbent has been proposed, which provides theoretical support for the development of new adsorbents and the optimization of RADS process.

Polynomial and ANN models applied to the formation of gums in Brazilian ethanol–gasoline blends—impact of gasoline composition, ethanol concentration, storage temperature, and aging duration

Polynomial and ANN models applied to the formation of gums in Brazilian ethanol–gasoline blends—impact of gasoline composition, ethanol concentration, storage temperature, and aging duration

Molecular Reconstruction Method Based on NIR Spectroscopy for Reformates

With the increasing attention to environmental protection and strict national standards, the production of high-quality clean gasoline is more and more required in modern refineries. At present, the molecular-level online modeling of the gasoline blending process is rarely reported due to the lack of a proper characterization method. In this study, we have developed a molecular reconstruction method based on near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy. We established a library that comprises an NIR spectrum and molecular composition of known reformates. We developed the sample selection algorithm that finds the sample with an NIR spectrum close to the target sample. The method-solving algorithm based on multiple linear regression was used to obtain the molecular composition of gasoline quickly. The method combines online measurement methods and molecular management technology to achieve online composition reconstruction. Seventy-five groups of reformates were collected to verify the feasibility of the method, and the results showed that the method predicted well.

Analysis of compositions and fuel specifications of the aqueous emulsion fuels of gasoline (RON 90)-ethanol-water in stable emulsions at low temperatures

Many countries worldwide encounter the greatest difficulties in improving people's life quality since fossil fuel reserves are decreasing, causing fuel prices to rise drastically. This problem has made many countries, including Indonesia, struggle to import them from producers in the Middle East. Adding a small part of ethanol to gasoline is one of the solutions that has been investigated and developed. The previous works relating to blended fuels, gasoline and ethanol, generally employed absolute alcohol, which was expensive. A small surfactant was added to the mixture to stabilize the emulsion, and the blending was conducted in normal conditions (room temperature). If the composition of gasoline and aqueous ethanol is not precise, the components can be separated at a specific temperature. The present study is aimed to report the analysis of compositions and fuel specifications of aqueous emulsions of gasoline (RON 90)-ethanol-water in a single phase without using a synthetic surfactant in the temperature range of 0–25 °C. The procedures were as follows: fermentation, ethanol distillation and purification, cooling, blending, and characterization of fuel specifications. Components of gasoline (RON 90)-ethanol-water formed a stable emulsion in the composition range of 28.00‒99.79 %, 0.20‒67.97 %, and 0.01‒3.58 %. The observation found that continually increasing the amount of aqueous ethanol and temperature after one phase was attained would not lead to the separation of components. Therefore, gasoline and aqueous ethanol can form a single phase functioning as a surfactant binding water and fossil fuel. The decrease in temperature after the emulsion is stabilized can separate the components whereby it is caused by the faster density change of aqueous ethanol than gasoline

MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF OIL REFINING PROCESSES AS A METHOD OF RESOURCE SAVING AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY

The authors carried out calculations to increase resource efficiency, energy saving of oil refining processes (cracking, reforming, isomerization) by mathematical modeling with an increase in the depth of oil refining, taking into account the composition of the processed raw materials. This article presents the results of calculations for optimizing existing installations under real technological conditions of one oil refinery. The results of calculations can be implemented in production. The authors have developed universal modeling programs that can be used to increase the resource efficiency of a catalytic cracking, reforming and isomerization plant, predict the group hydrocarbon composition of the flow after the reactor (in the last two processes), the output of products from the plant, the group composition and octane number of gasoline, as well as determine the optimal operating mode of the reactor.

A molecular kinetic model incorporating catalyst acidity for hydrocarbon catalytic cracking

AbstractThis work built a molecular‐level kinetic model for hydrocarbon catalytic cracking, incorporating the catalyst acidity as the parameter to estimate reaction rates. The n‐decane and 1‐hexene co‐conversion catalytic cracking process was chosen as the studying case. The molecular reaction network was automatically generated using a computer‐aided algorithm. A modified linear free energy relationship was proposed to estimate the activation energy in a complex reaction system. The kinetic parameters were initially regressed from the experimental data under several reaction conditions. On this basis, the product composition was evaluated for three catalytic cracking catalysts with different Si/Al. The Bronsted acid and Lewis acid as the key catalyst properties were correlated with kinetic parameters. The built model can calculate the product distribution, gasoline composition, and molecular distribution at different reaction conditions for different catalysts. This sensitive study shows that it will facilitate the model‐based optimization of catalysts and reaction conditions according to product demands.

Applied of Synthesis Furfural Based on Cassava Stems (Manihot utilissima) As Fuel Additive to Gasoline

Biofuel is an option to reduce CO2 generated by vehicles. In this study, synthetic crude furfural from cassava stems was blended as fuel additive to gasoline (Pertalite) and then induced by electromagnetic field. Analysis were carried out on engine performance and exhaust emissions produced by Kohler engines. Variations formed by samples crude furfural and commercial furfural (C5H4O2), then time variations of electromagnetic induction for 0 and 30 minutes. The blending composition of gasoline and furfural in a mixture of 1,500 ml fuel is 96% : 4%. The best results from increasing torque, cranking power and saving fuel consumption were obtained from variations in the use of crude furfural additives induced by electromagnetic fields (CFE). Exhaust emissions produced by pure Pertalite are still lower than fuels with furfural additives. The content of water and impurities in crude furfural causes the additive unmixed with Pertalite which is non-polar and hydrophobic.

Эффективность метил-трет-бутилового эфира и этинилциклогексанола на повышение октанового числа бензиновых композиций (бензина с установки замедленного коксования + риформинг)

Современным автомобилям требуется высокооктановое топливо с антидетонационными свойствами, характеризующееся октановыми числами двигателя 92, 95 и 98. Высокие антидетонационные характеристики достигаются либо путем глубокой модификации бензинов с использованием процессов каталитического крекинга, изомеризации, алкилирования, либо путем введения в топливо специальных высокооктановых присадок. Основной мировой тенденцией в улучшении экологических и эксплуатационных свойств автомобильных бензинов является использование многофункциональных присадок, в основном оксигенатов - кислородсодержащих веществ (спиртов, кетонов, эфиров и др.). Присутствие кислорода в молекуле оксигенатного топлива позволяет снизить вредные выбросы монооксида углерода на 30%, а несгоревших углеводородов - на 15%. В представленной работе было исследовано влияние двух таких компонентов - этинилциклогексанола (ЭЦГ) и метил-трет-бутилового эфира (МТБЭ) - на повышение октанового числа бензиновых смесей в соотношениях 40:60 и 20:80 бензина установки замедленного коксования (УЗК) и бензина риформинга. Показано, что использование ЭЦГ как присадки эффективнее, чем МТБЭ, для увеличения октанового числа бензиновых композиций.

Recent progress on catalyst technologies for high quality gasoline production

ABSTRACT The growing demand for clean and efficient fuels in the world reflects the rapid growth in automotive vehicles and more stringent environmental regulations. Hence, the refining industry must employ diverse strategies to obtain a gasoline pool made up of streams from different processes focused on improving the fuel quality and the octane ratings suitable for the current demanding automotive performance. The composition of gasoline varies mainly from each country’s policies, climate, environmental regulations, financial capacity, and local producer’s oil refining infrastructure. However, a generally accepted composition by source of the gasoline pool is: FCC naphtha and reformate, making up about 60%, light straight-run naphtha and alkylate gasoline, around 30%, isomerate, close to 5%, and variable proportions of butane, oxygenating agents, such as methyl-ter-butyl ether (MTBE), ter-amyl-methyl ether (TAME) and/or ethanol and additives for the remaining 5%. This review is focused on the recent research in the advancement and development of catalysts for the different processes used by the oil refining industry to improve the composition and properties of gasoline fuels. A detailed section on the Fischer-Tropsch process, where liquid hydrocarbons are potentially employed to further produce clean gasoline, is also discussed. A section devoted to research on biogasoline as a potential renewable fuel is also addressed. Finally, a discussion of the physicochemical properties of the gasoline blending components is also provided.

Activity features of catalysts for thermocatalytic hydrogenation processing of polymer waste

The aim of this study was to obtain new catalysts for the processing of carbon-containing polymer waste based on polyethylene and polypropylene, represented mostly by lids from beverages bottled in plastic containers, which accumulate in huge quantities in landfills, by the method of thermocatalytic hydrogenation into liquid fuels and other products. The process was carried out in the presence of fuel oil as a binder, a source of hydrogen and additional hydrocarbons. Thus, two tasks can be solved simultaneously: recycling the polymer waste and obtaining the alternative raw materials from the polymer waste in order to save resources and improve the environmental situation in general. New catalysts based on activated zeolite modified with Mo(VI) and W(VI) salts of various concentrations for the thermocatalytic hydrogenation processing of waste plastics into motor fuels were synthesized. The composition, structure, morphology and adsorption properties of the catalysts were determined by different physicochemical methods. The suitability of the obtained catalysts for use in the thermocatalytic hydrogenation processing of plastic waste into fuels was determined. The catalysts were tested during the processing of a mixture of polyethylene-polypropylene: a paste-forming agent (fuel oil) at T=450 °C and a pressure of 0.6 MPa. The individual and group composition of gasoline, diesel and gas oil fractions was determined by chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. The maximum yield of the gasoline fraction (16.9 wt.%) and diesel fraction (39.31 wt.%) was obtained on a 2%W(VI)/diatomite catalyst.

IMPROVING THE ENVIRONMENTALITY OF MOTOR GASOLINE

The article considers measures aimed at improving the environmental situation of large cities by reducing the harmful effects of exhaust gases generated during the operation of road transport. It is substantiated that a direct increase in the environmental friendliness of motor gasoline is the most promising approach to reducing the toxicity of exhaust gases. This increase can be achieved by reducing dissolved hydrocarbon gases (C4H10 and iso-C4H10) and metals (Pb, Fe, Mn) in gasoline; facilitation of the fractional composition of gasoline (including the end-boiling temperature); reduction in gasoline content of sulfur, aromatic hydrocarbons and olefins. Reducing these undesirable, from an environmental point of view, components will improve the quality of gasoline to the Euro-5 requirements adopted in Ukraine, as well as significantly extend the service life of special catalysts installed on motor vehicles to clean exhaust gases.
 The effect on the gasoline fraction (PK – 180 °C) and commercial gasoline A-95, oxygenates (methyl tert-butyl ether and ethyl alcohol) and 1,3-diphenyltriazene was studied. It is established that the use of 1% of the mass. 1,3-diphenyltriazene, in the composition of straight-run gasoline allows to increase its resistance to detonation by 12 points, reduce the toxicity of exhaust gases by 24% in terms of CO and 17% in terms of CH. It was determined that the addition of 1,3-diphenyltriazene to commercial gasoline A-95 in the amount of 1% by weight, in contrast to oxygenates, does not lead to a deterioration in the evaporation of gasolines and their physical stability.
 The use of 1,3-diphenyltriazene in commercial gasoline, due to its positive properties, in the future will optimize the use of other additives, including oxygenates, which are widely used today in the technology of commercial gasoline.

An evolving research agenda of merit function calculations for new gasoline compositions

Gasoline engines have an even greater potential for optimization. New fuels composition should be corresponded with modern engine technologies requirements. One of these requirements is introducing merit function to assess the advantages of innovative motor gasoline formulations, regarding their anticipated influence on performance for future engines. This paper addresses producing new recipes of environmentally friendly high octane gasoline fuel grades RONs 92 and 95. In addition, preliminary mathematical digital model for evaluating a comprehensive merit function of automotive gasoline for newly proposed fuel motor compositions was developed to maximize gasoline performance and decrease emissions when operating gasoline engines at various conditions. Physical and chemical characteristics of these innovative gasoline recipes were investigated in accordance with standard test methods regulations. The vast expertise of this laboratory work has obviously reported that fuel compositions samples contained the following concentrations by weight percentage, i.e., light condensate naphtha – 46–56, isopentane fraction – up to 4, aromatic components – up to 20, MTBE –14–15, isoolefins hydrocarbons – 15–16, and isooctane – up to 20. The key hypothesis of the merit function was improved gasoline efficiency and reduce exhaust emissions when operating gasoline engines at various conditions. The results reported that calculated values obtained for developed compositions turned out to be slightly higher than for baseline gasolines. These mean that the proposed gasoline composition was more efficient when operating gasoline engine at this condition.