Game Bird Farm Research Articles

Analysis of geographic location and pathways for influenza A virus infection of commercial upland game bird and conventional poultry farms in the United States\xa0of America

BackgroundAvian influenza (AI) is an infectious viral disease that affects several species and has zoonotic potential. Due to its associated health and economic repercussions, minimizing AI outbreaks is important. However, most control measures are generic and mostly target pathways important for the conventional poultry farms producing chickens, turkeys, and eggs and may not target other pathways that may be specific to the upland game bird sector. The goal of this study is to provide evidence to support the development of novel strategies for sector-specific AI control by comparing and contrasting practices and potential pathways for spread in upland game bird farms with those for conventional poultry farms in the United States. Farm practices and processes, seasonality of activities, geographic location and inter-farm distance were analyzed across the sectors. All the identified differences were framed and discussed in the context of their associated pathways for virus introduction into the farm and subsequent between-farm spread.ResultsDifferences stemming from production systems and seasonality, inter-farm distance and farm densities were evident and these could influence both fomite-mediated and local-area spread risks. Upland game bird farms operate under a single, independent owner rather than being contracted with or owned by a company with other farms as is the case with conventional poultry. The seasonal marketing of upland game birds, largely driven by hunting seasons, implies that movements are seasonal and customer-vendor dynamics vary between industry groups. Farm location analysis revealed that, on average, an upland game bird premises was 15.42 km away from the nearest neighboring premises with birds compared to 3.74 km for turkey premises. Compared to turkey premises, the average poultry farm density in a radius of 10 km of an upland game bird premises was less than a half, and turkey premises were 3.8 times (43.5% compared with 11.5%) more likely to fall within a control area during the 2015 Minnesota outbreak.ConclusionsWe conclude that the existing differences in the seasonality of production, isolated geographic location and epidemiological seclusion of farms influence AI spread dynamics and therefore disease control measures should be informed by these and other factors to achieve success.

Coccidiosis in the Chukar Partridge ( Alectoris chukar ): A Survey of Coccidiosis Outbreaks and a Test of Anticoccidial Drugs Against Eimeria kofoidi.

Field isolates of coccidia from 20 natural outbreaks in the chukar partridge ( Alectoris chukar ) were received from gamebird farms in 10 U.S. states. These were propagated in the laboratory and identified by microscopy and PCR. Of 20 samples, 18 were Eimeria kofoidi, two were Eimeria legionensis only, and one was a mixture of the two species. One isolate of E. kofoidi also contained an unidentified species detected only by PCR, nucleotide sequencing, and phylogenetic analysis. The efficacy of anticoccidial drugs against chukar coccidia was tested with experimental infections in battery cages. Isolates of E. kofoidi were used to infect 2-wk-old chukars. Anticoccidial products were given in the feed at levels approved for other poultry or for chukars. Tests were terminated at 6 days postinoculation with measurement of weight gains, fecal diarrhea scores, and necropsy to observe for lesion severity. Lasalocid (120 ppm) was moderately effective in one test. When tested against four field isolates, other ionophores (monensin, salinomycin, semduramicin) showed moderate effectiveness in reducing lesions and improving weight gains. Rofenaid (a potentiated sulfa mixture), robenidine (30 ppm), diclazuril (2 ppm), and decoquinate (80 ppm) were highly effective. In a test of nine products against a highly virulent field isolate, only diclazuril (2 ppm) and clopidol (125 ppm) reduced the severity of lesions and improved weight gain relative to infected controls, suggesting the extent to which previous drug usage had selected for drug resistance.

Pathologic Findings and Viral Antigen Distribution During Natural Infection of Ring-Necked Pheasants With H5N2 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus A

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is a major viral disease of poultry characterized by acute onset, systemic infection, and rapid death. In January 2015, H5N2 HPAI was identified by quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and gene sequencing as the cause of rapid death in 40 of 390 ring-necked pheasants (approximately 10% mortality), raised in a game bird farm in Washington State. We report clinicopathologic findings and viral antigen distribution in pheasants that died during the outbreak. Affected birds were depressed with reluctance to move, ruffled feathers, and drooping heads. Congestion of the cerebellar meningeal blood vessels was the only consistent gross pathologic finding. Meningoencephalitis with vasculitis and necrosis in the spleen and heart were the major microscopic lesions in the birds. Viral antigen was consistently detected in the brain, heart, and ovary with variable presence in other organs.

Evidence for wild waterfowl origin of H7N3 influenza A virus detected in captive-reared New Jersey pheasants.

In August 2014, a low-pathogenic H7N3 influenza A virus was isolated from pheasants at a New Jersey gamebird farm and hunting preserve. In this study, we use phylogenetic analyses and calculations of genetic similarity to gain inference into the genetic ancestry of this virus and to identify potential routes of transmission. Results of maximum-likelihood (ML) and maximum-clade-credibility (MCC) phylogenetic analyses provide evidence that A/pheasant/New Jersey/26996-2/2014 (H7N3) had closely related H7 hemagglutinin (HA) and N3 neuraminidase (NA) gene segments as compared to influenza A viruses circulating among wild waterfowl in the central and eastern USA. The estimated time of the most recent common ancestry (TMRCA) between the pheasant virus and those most closely related from wild waterfowl was early 2013 for both the H7 HA and N3 NA gene segments. None of the viruses from waterfowl identified as being most closely related to A/pheasant/New Jersey/26996-2/2014 at the HA and NA gene segments in ML and MCC phylogenetic analyses shared ≥99% nucleotide sequence identity for internal gene segment sequences. This result indicates that specific viral strains identified in this study as being closely related to the HA and NA gene segments of A/pheasant/New Jersey/26996-2/2014 were not the direct predecessors of the etiological agent identified during the New Jersey outbreak. However, the recent common ancestry of the H7 and N3 gene segments of waterfowl-origin viruses and the virus isolated from pheasants suggests that viral diversity maintained in wild waterfowl likely played an important role in the emergence of A/pheasant/New Jersey/26996-2/2014.

Susceptibility of rock doves to low-pathogenic avian influenza A viruses.

Following a 2008 outbreak of North American low-pathogenic H5N8 influenza A virus at an upland gamebird farm, we sero-sampled rock doves (pigeons, Columba livia) at the outbreak site and conducted experimental inoculations of wild-caught pigeons using the H5N8 virus and another low-pathogenic virus (H4N6). While 13% of pigeons at the outbreak site were seropositive, none were positive for exposure to H5, and one was positive for N8. Challenged pigeons exhibited low susceptibility and limited viral RNA excretion for both viruses tested, but at least one individual had RNA loads indicative of the potential for viral transmission to other birds.

Monitoring výskytu drobných hlodavců a související zdravotní rizika v odchovně lovné pernaté zvěře

Using live trapping devices we performed surveillance of small vertebrates in the game bird farm in Jinačovice in 2005 to 2006. The study was aimed at determining the species composition and numbers within individual technologies of rearing as well as finding possible reservoirs or sources of infectious agents. Five study areas were examined in 2005 and other three located within buildings were added in 2006. A line of 10 traps approximately 2 metres apart was employed on each study area. Small mammals trapped were sampled for parasitology and serology.Until the present, a total of 92 common species were captured – i.e., yellow-necked fieldmouse (Apodemus flavicollis), house mouse (Mus musculus), common vole (Microtus arvalis) and bank vole (Clethrionomys glareolus). Considering endoparasites, we found nematodes such as Aspicularis tetraptera and Syphacia obvelata, Catenotaenia spp. and undetermined members of the order Eucoccidiida. Ectoparasites included members of the order Siphonaptera – Ctenophthalmus solutus, Ctenophthalmus agyrtes, Megabothris (Gebiella) turbidus and Ctenophthalmus (Euct.) assimilis and order Acarina – Ixodes ricinus and Laelaps hilaris. Serology revealed antibodies against Leptospira grippotyphosa and L. sejroe.

Low-pathogenic avian influenza viruses in wild house mice.

BackgroundAvian influenza viruses are known to productively infect a number of mammal species, several of which are commonly found on or near poultry and gamebird farms. While control of rodent species is often used to limit avian influenza virus transmission within and among outbreak sites, few studies have investigated the potential role of these species in outbreak dynamics.Methodology/Principal FindingsWe trapped and sampled synanthropic mammals on a gamebird farm in Idaho, USA that had recently experienced a low pathogenic avian influenza outbreak. Six of six house mice (Mus musculus) caught on the outbreak farm were presumptively positive for antibodies to type A influenza. Consequently, we experimentally infected groups of naïve wild-caught house mice with five different low pathogenic avian influenza viruses that included three viruses derived from wild birds and two viruses derived from chickens. Virus replication was efficient in house mice inoculated with viruses derived from wild birds and more moderate for chicken-derived viruses. Mean titers (EID50 equivalents/mL) across all lung samples from seven days of sampling (three mice/day) ranged from 103.89 (H3N6) to 105.06 (H4N6) for the wild bird viruses and 102.08 (H6N2) to 102.85 (H4N8) for the chicken-derived viruses. Interestingly, multiple regression models indicated differential replication between sexes, with significantly (p<0.05) higher concentrations of avian influenza RNA found in females compared with males.Conclusions/SignificanceAvian influenza viruses replicated efficiently in wild-caught house mice without adaptation, indicating mice may be a risk pathway for movement of avian influenza viruses on poultry and gamebird farms. Differential virus replication between males and females warrants further investigation to determine the generality of this result in avian influenza disease dynamics.

Construction of PCR Primers to Detect and Distinguish Eimeria spp. in Northern Bobwhites and a Survey of Eimeria on Gamebird Farms in the United States

Coccidiosis is an important disease in captive gamebirds, including northern bobwhites (Colinusvirginianus). Three Eimeria species, Eimeria lettyae, Eimeria dispersa, and Eimeria colini, have been described in bobwhites. Distinguishing the various Eimeria spp. is often problematic because of similarity in oocyst morphology and site of infection and thus requires live bird infections to distinguish between the coccidian species. To aid in identification and diagnosis, PCR specific primers were generated against the internal transcribed spacer region 1 (ITS-1) of the ribosomal RNA gene using sequences obtained from coccidian-positive samples collected from diagnostic cases or litter from captive bobwhites. Three distinct Eimeria spp. were detected. Species-specific primers were constructed and used to survey the prevalence of the species in 31 samples collected from 13 states. The primers survey results identified E. lettyae, E. dispersa, and Eimeria sp. in 20 (64.5%), 22 (71%), and 29 (93.5%) of the samples, respectively. Mixed infections were common: 13 (41.9%) samples had 3 Eimeria spp., 14 (45.2%) had 2 spp., and 4 (12.9%) samples had only 1 species. The species were widely distributed over the area sampled and were not associated with the age of the flock.

Prevalence of thermotolerantCampylobacterin partridges (Perdix perdix)

To estimate the prevalence of thermotolerant Campylobacter spp. in commercially reared partridges (Perdix perdix) in southern Italy. Cloacal swabs of partridges (n = 240), equally distributed between male and female birds, from a game bird farm located in the Southern Italy were examined for the prevalence of thermotolerant Campylobacter spp. The samples were processed in order to detect thermotolerant Campylobacter spp. by culture methods. The positive samples were then confirmed by multiplex polymerase chain reaction. Thermotolerant Campylobacter spp. were isolated from 118 (49.2%) of the 240 cloacal swabs examined. As proved by PCR, 100% of the strains were identified as Campylobacter coli (118/118), and 15 (12.7%) out of the 118 positive samples were also positive for Campylobacter jejuni. In contrast, Campylobacter lari was not identified. Adult partridges showed a significantly higher prevalence (P < 0.05) than younger ones. These results reinforce the assumption that game birds may be considered as potential carriers of Campylobacter spp. for human being and other animal species. Although an earlier 1986 publication described the prevalence of Campylobacter coli in commercially reared partridges, this is the first report to confirm the species of Campylobacter using a PCR test.

Mycotic Proventriculitis in Gray Partridges (Perdix perdix) on Two Game Bird Farms

Proventriculitis and chronic respiratory disease were diagnosed in two flocks of gray partridges (Perdix perdix) on unrelated Swedish game bird farms. Affected birds showed loss of condition, respiratory signs, and flock mortality rates of 50 and 98%, respectively. The proventricular lesions were associated closely with fungal organisms that were microscopically indistinguishable from the ascomycetous yeast Macrorhabdus ornithogaster (former provisional name "megabacterium"). At necropsy, the proventriculi were swollen and hyperemic, and viscous mucus adhered to the mucosa. Proventricular hemorrhages were commonly detected, and one bird had proventricular rupture and peritonitis. Microscopically, mild to severe subacute to chronic lymphoplasmacytic proventriculitis, microabscesses, necrosis, epithelial metaplasia, disrupted koilin, ulcers, and hemorrhages were observed. Transmission electron microscopy of the proventricular microorganisms revealed a membrane-bound nucleus, vacuoles, ribosomes, microtubules in parallel arrays, and a two-layered cell wall but no mitochondria. Scanning electron microscopy of the proventricular epithelium demonstrated masses of organisms with occasional constrictions in parallel arrangement. Many of the birds also suffered from concurrent respiratory bacterial infections and/or gastrointestinal candidiasis. The clinical course and gross and microscopic proventricular lesions were similar to those described in psittacine and passerine pet birds colonized by M. ornithogaster-like microorganisms but differed from published case reports and experimental infections of chickens in which the clinical signs and lesions have been considerably milder. The findings presented in this paper suggest that mycotic proventriculitis, presumably associated with M. ornithogaster, may be a serious but possibly opportunistic, although unusual, disease problem in gray partridges on game farms.

West Nile Virus–Associated Mortality Events in Domestic Chukar Partridges (Alectoris chukar) and Domestic Impeyan Pheasants (Lophophorus impeyanus)

West Nile virus (WNV) infection was diagnosed in captive juvenile chukars (Alectoris chukar), and captive juvenile Impeyan pheasants (Lophophorus impeyanus) on the basis of necropsy, histopathology, polymerase chain reaction, and immunohistochemistry. The chukars were kept in a game bird farm that experienced two outbreaks with approximately 25% mortality in hundreds of chukars between September and October 2002 and during the same months in 2003. The submitted pheasants were part of a group of 15 juvenile Impeyan pheasants that all died within approximately 2 wk at the end of August 2002. The macroscopic lesions in the pheasants were dominated by mucosal hemorrhage at the proventricular to ventricular junction and cecal ulcers, whereas the gross lesions in the chukar partridges were nonspecific. The predominant microscopic lesion in the chukar partridges was myocardial necrosis, whereas fibrinous and necrotizing splenitis was prominent in the pheasants. Viral antigen was usually widespread in animals of both species. Spontaneously occurring WNV infection should be considered a differential diagnosis in cases of mortality among select species of galliform birds.

Brachyspiraspp. (Serpulinaspp.) in birds: a review and results from a study of Swedish game birds

Only limited data concerning the prevalence of intestinal spirochetes are available in game birds. This paper describes the prevalence and biochemical reactions of spirochetes isolated from 25 common partridges, 7 pheasants and 16 mallards originating from nine Swedish game-bird farms. The birds, which had been submitted for post-mortem examination due to various problems, showed a variety of underlying diseases. Additionally, fecal droppings from 22 common partridges, 20 pheasants and 20 mallards obtained at one of the farms were included in the study. Intestinal spirochetes were isolated from 85.4% of the game birds and from 71% of the fecal droppings. Seven biochemical types were identified. Seventeen per cent of all isolates were classified as Brachyspira pilosicoli and 3% as B. intermedia. One isolate showed strong beta-hemolysis and a positive indole reaction that is consistent with B. hyodysenteriae. In addition, three previously unknown biochemical types were found. Unclassified spirochetes in presumed mixed cultures were observed in 21% of all samples of fecal droppings. Histologic examination of spirochete-positive birds revealed numerous spirochetes in the lumen and crypts of the cecum, in some cases densely adhered by one end to the luminal surface. The significance of the findings is discussed.

An Outbreak of Duck Viral Enteritis (Duck Plague) in Domestic Muscovy Ducks (Cairina moschata domesticus) in Illinois

Duck viral enteritis (DVE) was diagnosed in an outbreak of the disease in a resident population of Muscovy ducks (Cairina moschata domesticus) on a privately owned multispecies game bird production facility in Illinois, where it claimed 625 ducks. This disease condition had not been reported previously in domestic ducks in Illinois. Although other varieties and age groups of domestic waterfowl (i.e., black ducks, rhumen ducks, Pekin ducks, ducklings, and geese) were present on the game bird farm, the morbidity and mortality (100%) in this epornitic was solely limited to adult ducks of the Muscovy lineage. The clinical signs in the affected ducks were lethargy, diarrhea, dehydration, and death within 2-3 hr of onset of symptoms. Gross pathologic changes were nonspecific and included ecchymotic hemorrhage, effusion of fluid and blood within body cavities reflective of an acute systemic infectious disease. Light microscopic findings were necrosis of primarily digestive lining epithelium and variable lymphohistiocytic infiltration within mucosal and serosal connective tissues. Intranuclear inclusions resembling characteristic herpetic (i.e., Cowdry type A) inclusions were observed primarily in the digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts; liver; and spleen. Esophageal candidiasis, bacteriosis, and systemic Pasteurella anatipestifer infections, thought to be concurrent or opportunistic infections, were present in several ducks. DVE virus was demonstrated in infected Muscovy duck embryo fibroblast cells by direct DVE virus-specific fluorescent antibody staining.

Some Observations on the Bursa of Fabricius in Chukars

This paper reports a method to distinguish birds-of-the-year, hereinafter referred to as juveniles, from adults in chukars (Alectoris graeca) during the fall by measuring the depth of the bursa. When young chukars have completed their post-juvenal molt, normally before the end of October, they are difficult to distinguish accurately from adults by external characteristics. The shape and coloration of the juvenal primaries IX and X, which are retained during the first winter of life, have been used as a basis for making this age distinction; but results are uncertain except perhaps with very experienced workers (Smith, 1961). Retention of a few juvenal secondaries (conspicuously mottled) has also been used in the attempt to distinguish young chukars from adults in the fall but the method is unreliable (Smith, 1961). Only 7 (13.7 per cent) of the 51 juveniles included in the present study still retained any mottled secondaries on October 19, and these 7 birds were all from a late hatch. The depth of the bursa of Fabricius is the only known characteristic by which age determination in chukars can be made with certainty during late fall and early winter. The bursa is a blind sac opening antero-dorsally into the cloaca of birds. Bursae tend to be prominent in young birds and to regress with the onset of sexual maturity. The structure has been known to anatomists for centuries, but Gower (1939) was the first to point out its value in wildlife management. Since then it has been studied in numerous species of game birds (Taber, 1960). Measurement of the bursa is of limited value in aging hunter-killed chukars since the bursa is usually removed when birds are field-dressed. Evidence that this method of aging is applicable to Turkish chukars (probably subspecies cypriotes) is shown in Table 1. This table is based on 150 known-age, known-sex birds hatched and reared at the State Game Bird Farm, Carlsbad, New Mexico. The birds were descendants of chukars wild-trapped in Asiatic Turkey in 1951-52. During the period October 19-22, 1960, the experimental birds were sacrificed and a variety of biological data was secured from them. Bursae were measured with a small metal knitting needle marked off into 5-mm intervals. Bursal depths were estimated to the nearest millimeter. Because

Observations on the Specific Cause and the Nature of "Quail Disease" or Ulcerative Enteritis in Quail.

Ulcerative enteritis of quail (so-called quail disease) constitutes the most important disease problem in propagation of quail in captivity. Many game breeders have had their entire stock decimated or practically wiped out by an epizootic of this disease. Once introduced on a game bird farm, the infection is extremely difficult to eradicate. Heavy losses from this disease have occurred in wild trapped quail held in concentration stations for restocking purposes. This indicates that the disease may profoundly affect the population density of wild quail in their natural habitat.The purpose of this communication is (a) to record the previously unrecognized† specific cause of quail disease, (b) to describe the technical method by which others can readily confirm this, (c) to direct attention to the chronic carrier as a factor in maintaining and spreading the infection and (d) to record observations indicating transmission of the infection to young quail chicks through eggs laid by carriers.The disease is char...