Galilee Mountains Research Articles

Late Holocene hydroclimatic history of the Galilee Mountains from sedimentary records of the Sea of Galilee, Israel

AbstractDetrital sediments of the Sea of Galilee are predominantly pedogenic products of settled dust and local bedrocks transported from Upper Galilee and the Golan Heights. Using the mineralogy, chemistry, and Nd and Sr isotope ratios of the core LK12-22 collected offshore of the Ginosar valley and of contemporaneous soils from the Nahal Tzalmon and Nahal Amud catchments, we reconstructed Late Holocene regional hydroclimate. The core samples span ɛNd isotope values of −6 to −2 and 87Sr/86Sr ratios of 0.7075 to 0.7077 between the isotope fields of the Terra rossa soils and basaltic soils. Sediments from the drier Iron Age and Arabic and Ottoman periods are closer in Nd-Sr isotope ratios of the basaltic soils, while those of the wetter Middle to Late Bronze and Roman–Byzantine periods are closer to the Terra rossa soils, reflecting enhanced mobilization of sediments from the Tzalmon catchment where Terra rossa–type soils accumulated. This result corroborates other regional data that indicate semiarid to temperate conditions in the south Levant during most of the Late Holocene. Wetter conditions over the Galilee Mountains and the Ginosar valley catchment during the Roman period could have promoted the flourishing farming-fishing society that heralded the rise of Christianity.

Comparative analysis of SARS-CoV-2 and its receptor ACE2 with evolutionarily related coronaviruses

The pandemic COVID-19 is caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and it is spreading very rapidly worldwide. To date, the origin and intermediate hosts of SARS-CoV-2 remain unclear. In this study, we conducted comparative analysis among SARS-CoV-2 and non-SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus strains to elucidate their phylogenetic relationships. We found: 1, the SARS-CoV-2 strains analyzed could be divided into 3 clades with regional aggregation; 2, the non-SARS-CoV-2 common coronaviruses that infect humans or other organisms to cause respiratory syndrome and epizootic catarrhal gastroenteritis could also be divided into 3 clades; 3, the hosts of the common coronaviruses closest to SARS-CoV-2 were Apodemus chevrieri (a rodent), Delphinapterus leucas (beluga whale), Hypsugo savii (bat) , Camelus bactrianus (camel) and Mustela vison (mink); and 4, the gene sequences of the receptor ACE2 from different hosts could also be divided into 3 clades. The ACE2 gene sequences closest to that of humans in evolution include those from Nannospalax galili (Upper Galilee mountains blind mole rat), Phyllostomus discolor (pale spear-nosed bat), Mus musculus (house mouse), Delphinapterus leucas (beluga whale), and Catharus ustulatus (Swainson's thrush). We conclude that SARS-CoV-2 may have evolved from a distant common ancestor with the common coronaviruses but not a branch of any of them, implying that the prevalent pandemic COVID-19 agent SARS-CoV-2 may have existed in a yet to be identified primary host for a long time.

Evaporation from Lake Kinneret, Israel, during hot summer days

Summary The relationships between the evaporation from a medium size (168.7 km 2 ) Lake Kinneret (Northern Israel), and its governing synoptic factors are well demonstrated during the summer of 2010. During July–August the daily temperature of the air and water surface were ∼2–4 °C higher, the daily wind over the lake was ∼80% weaker, and the evaporation from the lake was ∼5% lower than the long-term July–August mean. In this study, we explore the impact of the regional and local synoptic-scale atmospheric conditions on the evaporation from the lake during exceptionally hot days in the mid-summer months (July–August). The factors that were found to be correlated with the lake evaporation are the temperatures at 850 hPa (negative) and 500 hPa (positive), the sea level pressure difference between Northern Egypt and Armenia (positive), and the height of the marine inversion (positive). Synoptic analysis indicates that two conditions are responsible for the reduction of the Mediterranean Sea Breeze (MSB) during exceptionally hot days, and consequently to the reduction of evaporation from the lake. First, the weakening of the permanent synoptic Etesian winds, which otherwise supports the inland penetration of the MSB; and second, the descent of the marine inversion to a height below the topographic ridge of the Galilee Mountains upwind of the study area, which blocks the Marine Sea Breeze from reaching Lake Kinneret.

A New Chara Locality in the Protected Area of the Galilee Mountains, Israel

A new locality of Chara is described from the Nevoria pool, Upper Galilee region of Israel. The associated algal diversity is revealed, and ecological assessment aquatic environment is obtained with bio-indication methods. Algal community includes ten species two of which are charophytes Chara gymnophylla A.Braun and Spirogyra sp. The charophytes are found in mass growths in the studied pool. Bio-indication and chemical variables characterize the pool environment as eutrophic, low- to middle organically polluted, belonging to water quality Class II-III. The water is fresh, temperate, low alkaline, and well saturated with oxygen. Seasonality of algal community and water quality show a higher organic pollution in March caused by recreation impact at the end of the rainy season. The water is appreciably clearer in November at the end of the dry season, accompanied with a decrease of algal diversity. We recommend the Nevoria pool as reference site for monitoring of natural aquatic object in the Upper Galilee Mountains, for which Chara gymnophylla can be used as a climatic indicator.

Fluctuating helical asymmetry and morphology of snails (Gastropoda) in divergent microhabitats at 'Evolution Canyons I and II,' Israel.

BackgroundDevelopmental instability of shelled gastropods is measured as deviations from a perfect equiangular (logarithmic) spiral. We studied six species of gastropods at ‘Evolution Canyons I and II’ in Carmel and the Galilee Mountains, Israel, respectively. The xeric, south-facing, ‘African’ slopes and the mesic, north-facing, ‘European’ slopes have dramatically different microclimates and plant communities. Moreover, ‘Evolution Canyon II’ receives more rainfall than ‘Evolution Canyon I.’Methodology/Principal FindingsWe examined fluctuating asymmetry, rate of whorl expansion, shell height, and number of rotations of the body suture in six species of terrestrial snails from the two ‘Evolution Canyons.’ The xeric ‘African’ slope should be more stressful to land snails than the ‘European’ slope, and ‘Evolution Canyon I’ should be more stressful than ‘Evolution Canyon II.’ Only Eopolita protensa jebusitica showed marginally significant differences in fluctuating helical asymmetry between the two slopes. Contrary to expectations, asymmetry was marginally greater on the ‘European’ slope. Shells of Levantina spiriplana caesareana at ‘Evolution Canyon I,’ were smaller and more asymmetric than those at ‘Evolution Canyon II.’ Moreover, shell height and number of rotations of the suture were greater on the north-facing slopes of both canyons.Conclusions/SignificanceOur data is consistent with a trade-off between drought resistance and thermoregulation in snails; Levantina was significantly smaller on the ‘African’ slope, for increasing surface area and thermoregulation, while Eopolita was larger on the ‘African’ slope, for reducing water evaporation. In addition, ‘Evolution Canyon I’ was more stressful than Evolution Canyon II’ for Levantina.

Does Air Pollution Really Suppress Precipitation in Israel?

Abstract Trends in the orographic rainfall ratio R0 over Israel are reevaluated. It is shown that the rainfall has not changed significantly over most of the mountainous stations, with some significant increases over the central mountains. The overall evaluation of R0 for all potential station pairs, calculating the ratio of each mountain station separately over each coastal or seashore station, indicates that about 50% of all pairs show a positive trend in R0. The high spatial variability, especially over the mountains, allows for finding orographic rainfall ratio trends that are significant in both the positive and negative directions. The correct definition of R0 in the Israeli case requires the use of a seashore cluster of stations. If some of the seashore stations are replaced by inland stations, and in particular stations that are right over the region of maximum positive rainfall urban enhancement due to the thermal heat island or other urban effects, a seemingly decreasing “orographic ratio” is unavoidable. In such a case, urban dynamical positive effects on coastal rainfall can be erroneously interpreted as pollution suppression of orographic rainfall. When seashore stations are selected as required by a proper definition of the orographic ratio, increasing R0 is obtained over central Israel and an insignificant trend over the north is found. Furthermore, evaluation of the ratio of rainfall for the upwind in comparison with the downwind side of the Galilee Mountains exhibits an increasing trend, opposite to the recent findings of Givati and Rosenfeld. The rainfall analysis shows no evidence of any suppression of rainfall over the mountains due to pollution, and at least in Israel other factors besides aerosols are predominant in defining the trends in the orographic rainfall ratio.

Interpretation of spring recession curves.

Recession curves contain information on storage properties and different types of media such as porous, fractured, cracked lithologies and karst. Recession curve analysis provides a function that quantitatively describes the temporal discharge decay and expresses the drained volume between specific time limits (Hall 1968). This analysis also allows estimating the hydrological significance of the discharge function parameters and the hydrological properties of the aquifer. In this study, we analyze data from perennial springs in the Judean Mountains and from others in the Galilee Mountains, northern Israel. All the springs drain perched carbonate aquifers. Eight of the studied springs discharge from a karst dolomite sequence, whereas one flows out from a fractured, slumped block of chalk. We show that all the recession curves can be well fitted by a function that consists of two exponential terms with exponential coefficients alpha1 and alpha2. These coefficients are approximately constant for each spring, reflecting the hydraulic conductivity of different media through which the ground water flows to the spring. The highest coefficient represents the fast flow, probably through cracks, or quickflow, whereas the lower one reflects the slow flow through the porous medium, or baseflow. The comparison of recession curves from different springs and different years leads to the conclusion that the main factors that affect the recession curve exponential coefficients are the aquifer lithology and the geometry of the water conduits therein. In normal years of rainy winter and dry summer, alpha1 is constant in time. However, when the dry period is longer than usual because of a dry winter, alpha1 slightly decreases with time.

Polymorphism at rDNA loci in barley and its relation with climatic variables.

The variation in length of the intergenic spacer (IGS) region of the ribosomal DNA repeat unit was examined in 63 accessions of wild barley, Hordeum spontaneum, and seven accessions of cultivated barley, Hordeum vulgare. The accessions of wild barley were collected from ecologically diverse climatic and edaphic microsites in Israel, and the barley cultivars were those grown in India. Sixteen spacer-length variants (slvs) observed in the present study presumably belonged to two known rDNA loci ( Rrn1 and Rrn2). Each accession had one or more variants, which together represented the rDNA phenotype. The rDNA phenotypes of wild barley accessions were widely diverse and differed substantially from those of cultivated barley. The slv phenotypes and the corresponding alleles were shown to be largely correlated with different climatic, edaphic and ecogeographical microsites and niches (the "Evolution Canyon" at Lower Nahal Oren, Mount Carmel; and Tabigha, Eastern Upper Galilee Mountains), so that a particular rDNA phenotype of an accession could be used to predict the climate and soil to which the accession belonged. This sharp microsite ecogeographic variation in ribosomal DNA appears adaptive in nature, and is presumably driven by climatic and edaphic natural selection.

SPATIOTEMPORAL PREDICTIVE MODELS OF MEDITERRANEAN VEGETATION DYNAMICS

Empirical modeling of vegetation dynamics can be used for predictive pur- poses. The goal of the present study is to construct and evaluate possible approaches for empirical modeling of vegetation dynamics, and to investigate their potential use in planning and management. An empirical model of mediterranean vegetation dynamics was constructed using a case study of vegetation change in an area in the Galilee mountains, northern Israel, between 1964 and 1992. Present vegetation in any location was modeled as a function of past vegetation and environmental factors (e.g., topography and various disturbances); future vegetation was then modeled as a function of current vegetation and effects of environmental factors. In order to assess model performance, we compared the actual vegetation map with maps representing model realizations for the study area and for an external validation area. Three types of measures were used to compare the predicted and actual vegetation maps: overall vegetation composition, pattern indices, and cell-by-cell match. We compared the performance of logistic vs. linear models and of stochastic vs. deterministic realizations of a logistic model. Our results indicate that landscape-scale vegetation dynamics can be fairly well modeled using a few biologically important variables. The logistic and linear models had similar performance, in spite of the reduced information on which the logistic models were based. The use of only a 4% sample of the database resulted in a negligible reduction in model performance. Model performance was reduced, but was still fair, when applied to an external area. The merits and limitations of this modeling approach are discussed in comparison with other approaches for modeling vegetation dynamics.

Biodiversity and microclimatic divergence of chrysomelid beetles at «Evolution Canyon», Lower Nahal Oren, Mt Carmel, Israel

Ninety species of leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae, Coleoptera, Insecta) were recorded from the «Evolution Canyon» microsite (sample area 7000 m2), Lower Nahal Oren, Mt Carmel, Israel. Species richness was significantly (P=0.018) higher on the drier, climatically more fluctuating savanna-like, south-facing slope (SFS, 60 species, sample area 3000 m2) than on the cooler, wetter and climatically less variable north-facing slope (NFS, 44 species, sample area 3000 m2), as in other terrestrial taxa. More species were found common to the local xeric SFS at the Canyon and the regional southern desert areas (Judean and Negev Deserts), than to the NFS and Galilee Mountains, respectively, suggesting that local patterns mirror regional patterns. Interslope differences in microclimate variability range indicate that this factor might be determinant of interslope species richness differences. Most species were collected in the spring (April; 47%) and least in the autumn (September; 3%) over the collecting period from March 1995 to June 1997.

Biodiversity and microclimatic divergence of chrysomelid beetles at ‘Evolution Canyon’, Lower Nahal Oren, Mt Carmel, Israel

Ninety species of leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae, Coleoptera, Insecta) were recorded from the ‘Evolution Canyon’ microsite (sample area 7000 m2), Lower Nahal Oren, Mt Carmel, Israel. Species richness was significantly (P=0.018) higher on the drier, climatically more fluctuating savanna-like, south-facing slope (SFS, 60 species, sample area 3000 m2) than on the cooler, wetter and climatically less variable north-facing slope (NFS, 44 species, sample area 3000 m2), as in other terrestrial taxa. More species were found common to the local xeric SFS at the Canyon and the regional southern desert areas (Judean and Negev Deserts), than to the NFS and Galilee Mountains, respectively, suggesting that local patterns mirror regional patterns. Interslope differences in microclimate variability range indicate that this factor might be determinant of interslope species richness differences. Most species were collected in the spring (April; 47%) and least in the autumn (September; 3%) over the collecting period from March 1995 to June 1997.

The effect of grazing on soil and water losses under arid and mediterranean climates. Implications for desertification

Two sites, both affected by grazing but under different climatic conditions, were selected in Israel to study the effect of grazing on soil degradation. One site was selected in the Judean Desert, a dry environment (260 mm mean annual rainfall) with a long history of overgrazing and very little vegetative cover. The second site was selected in the Galilee Mountains where the climate is of Mediterranean type (650 mm mean annual rainfall) and the vegetative cover is much greater in spite of the grazing. Simulated rain experiments were performed in the field and in the laboratory in order to evaluate differences in hydrological and erosional response to rainfall between the two sites. The results show a clear difference between these two ecosystems. In the Judean Desert, where vascular plant cover is sparse, a crust was developed which enhanced overland flow and erosion. In the Mediterranean environment the overland flow and erosion were negligible under shrubs and relatively high at the intershrub corridors. At the hillslope scale a mosaiclike pattern of water and soil contributing and accepting patches was developed. Such a pattern usually protect the hillslope from being eroded. Runoff and erosion rates luere very high in the Judean Desert and negligible in the Galilee Mountains.

Effects of grazing and topography on long-term vegetation changes in a Mediterranean ecosystem in Israel

The dynamics of Mediterranean vegetation over 28 years was studied in the Northern Galilee Mountains, Israel, in order to identify and quantify the major factors affecting it at the landscape scale. Image analysis of historical and current aerial photographs was used to produce high resolution digital vegetation maps (pixel size = 30 cm) for an area of 4 km 2 in the Galilee Mountains, northern Israel. GIS tools were used to produce corresponding maps of grazing regime, topographic indices and other relevant environmental factors. The effects of those factors were quantified using a multiple regression analyses. Major changes in the vegetation occurred during the period studied (1964‐1992); tree cover increased from 2% in 1964 to 41% in 1992, while herbaceous vegetation cover decreased from 56% in 1964 to 24% in 1992. Grazing, topography and initial vegetation cover were found to significantly affect present vegetation patterns. Both cattle grazing and goat grazing reduced the rate of increase in tree cover, yet even intensive grazing did not halt the process. Grazing affected also the woody-herbaceous vegetation dynamics, reducing the expansion of woody vegetation. Slope, aspect, and the interaction term between these two factors, significantly affected vegetation pattern. Altogether, 56% and 72% of the variability in herbaceous and tree cover, respectively, was explained by the regression models. This study indicates that spatially explicit Mediterranean vegetation dynamics can be predicted with fair accuracy using few biologically important environmental variables.

Effect of climate on surface flow along a climatological gradient in Israel: a field rainfall simulation approach

A climatological gradient was selected in Israel to examine the effects of climate on surface flow and soil erosion. The gradient is composed of eight study areas located between the Dead Sea and the Galilee Mountains. Mean annual rainfall ranges from 100mm year−1in the driest site to 900mm year−1in the wettest site. Simulated rainfall experiments were performed in order to determine the main hydrological and erosional parameters. Data were recorded in 36 different plots after showers of 50mmh−1rain intensity and 45–60min duration.In the arid sites (<400mm year−1) abundant runoff appeared on the soil surface very quickly, and the infiltration rates were very low. Erosion rates, sediment concentration and runoff salinity were very high. By contrast, on the wet sites (>500mm year−1) runoff was very low due to the high infiltration rates and as a consequence erosion was negligible, while in the wettest area, local ponds were found at the beginning of the rain due to the hydrophobic response of the ecto-organic horizon. In general, ponding and runoff either failed to occur or were very delayed in the wet sites where the runoff coefficients were consequently very low.

Populating Israel's Mountains while Preserving Their Environmental Quality

At the beginning of the twentieth century, the Galilee Mountains were still practically a ‘closed system’, as a result of which the balance of land-use was more or less preserved. Rural settlements had then hardly developed, and stagnation of the few remaining mountain towns was observed. In general, the roads were unpaved routes, the economy served for subsistence only (based mainly on agricultural terraces), while most of the area was of forest or rocky ground serving as pasture.During the British Mandatory period, the Galilee Mountains area opened up slowly, and this process has increased ever since the establishment of the State of Israel. The Mountains are facing a tremendous increase in population as a result of natural local increase (mostly Arabs) and migration (mostly Jews). This excessive mountain population in Israel is an unusual phenomenon in comparison with other mountain regions in the western world, which have generally decreased in population though there, too, the equilibrium of land-use has been shaken—for instance in the Swiss Alps (Bugmann, 1980; Gallusser, 1980; Messerli et al., 1980), and in the Rocky Mountains of the United States (Kelly, 1980).

HYBRIDIZATION AND SPECIATION IN FOSSORIAL MOLE RATS.

Hybrid zones between parapatric chromosomal species are of prime evolutionary significance as natural testing grounds for assessing the degree of reproductive isolation between parental species. Major problems of evolutionary dynamics and of species formation may be resolved in hybrid zones. These involve, among others, the stage of speciation, degree of genetic and ecological divergence of the derivatives of speciation, and the types and modes of perfection of isolating mechanisms. This study investigated hybrid zones between chromosome forms of the fossorial mole rat Spalax ehrenbergi as a dynamic model of speciation (Nevo, 1973). Fossorial mole rats of the S. ehrenbergi superspecies complex in Israel involve four main chromosome forms with 2n = 52, 54, 58 and 60. The four karyoptic forms inhabit extensive regions which are distributed clinally and parapatrically along a north-south ecological gradient of increasing aridity (Wahrman et al., 1969). Their distribution is correlated with the humidity index and the climatic regimes as defined by Thornthwaite (1948). Karyotype 2n = 52 is found in the Upper Galilee Mountains in a humid to subhumid climate (55-65 days of rain and 650-1000 mm rainfall annually). Karyotype 2n = 54 extends over Mount Hermon and the Golan Heights which is a subhumid to humid region (4565 days of rain and 500-1400 mm rainfall annually) with lower mean annual temperatures than the previous region. Karyotype 2n = 58 ranges in the Lower Galilee Mountains and Central Israel in a subhumid to semiarid climatic regime (44-55 days of rain and 500-650 mm rainfall annually). Finally, karyotype 2n = 60 is found in the Samaria and Judea Mountains extending toward the southern and eastern deserts of Israel, a semiarid to arid region with some subhumid mountainous enclaves (15-45 days of rain and 100-500 mm rainfall annually). Only rare natural hybrids between karyotypes have been previously reported along the contact zones. The four karyotypes have been considered sibling species on distributional as well as ethological evidence (Nevo, 1969). Further, their extremely close genic relationships (Nevo and Shaw, 1972; Nevo and Sarich, 1975) suggest that they represent very recent species. The present study is a test of their stage of speciation under natural conditions by exploring actual and potential hybrid zones along contacts of contiguous karyotypes. Our present observations of very narrow hybrid zones and lower than expected proportions of hybrids in the narrowest zones suggest an increasing effectiveness of isolating mechanisms between the diverging karyotypes and progressive terminalization of species formation.

Incidence of virus diseases in trials to grow foundation-stock seed potatoes in Israel

Sampling of aphids in the Galilee mountains indicated a remarkable ebb in the numbers of alateMyzus persicae individuals during the hottest summer months of June–September. This apparen seasonal lack of vectors was reflected in the results of a preliminary field trial carried out there in the summer of 1966, whereby hardly any aphid transmission of potato virus Y (PVY) could be noticed.