Future Sustainable Energy Systems Research Articles

Development and calibration of a bio-geo-reactive transport model for UHS

The increased share of renewable energy sources will lead to large fluctuations in energy availability and increases energy storage’s significance. Large-scale hydrogen storage in the subsurface may become a vital element of a future sustainable energy system because stored hydrogen becomes an energy carrier available on demand. Large hydrogen amounts can be stored in porous formations such as former gas fields or gas storages, while caverns can contribute with high deliverability. However, the storage of hydrogen induces unique processes in fluid-fluid and rock-fluid interactions (for example, bio- and geochemical reactions), which may affect the efficiency of the storage. In the present study, a mathematical model describing the two-phase multicomponent flow in porous media, including bio- and geochemical reactions, is developed to predict these hydrogen-related processes. The proposed model extends an existing model in the open source simulator DuMux describing the bio-reactive transport process considering methanation and sulfate-reduction by geochemical reactions. Significant attention is placed on the reduction from pyrite-to-pyrrhotite coming with the generation of harmful hydrogen sulfide. This reaction is calibrated by developing a kinetic model in DuMux that mimics the observations of reactor experiments from literature. The developed and calibrated model is afterwards used for simulation runs on field scale to assess the impact on Underground Hydrogen Storage (UHS) operations. The developed kinetic model describes the reduction from pyrite-to-pyrrhotite in agreement with the observations in the literature, whereby particular focus was placed on the hydrogen sulfide production rate. The consecutive implementation of the transport model in DuMux on field scale, including the bio- and geochemical reactions, shows the potential permanent hydrogen losses caused by reactions and temporary ones induced by gas-gas mixing with the initial and cushion gas.

Electron‐Donating Cu Atoms Induced High Proton Supply and Anti‐Poisoning Ruthenium Clusters for Superior Direct Seawater Hydrogen Production

AbstractDirect seawater hydrogen production via electrolysis would be a transformative technology for large‐scale pathways for future sustainable energy systems. However, prohibiting the formation of insoluble hydroxides and promoting proton supply at the electrode‐seawater interface are extremely desirable but remain challenging. Herein, inspired by the dual‐metal pair sites in natural enzyme, the de novo design of an efficient, robust, and precise electron‐donating Cu‐modulated ruthenium clusters on porous carbon matrix (Cu@Runc‐C) is reported as a high proton supply and anti‐poisoning cathode material for superior direct seawater hydrogen production. Benefitting from the unique Cu@Runc pair sites, the cathode exhibits particularly high hydrogen evolution activities with ultralow overpotentials to reach a high current density of 300 mA cm−2 in both alkaline (115 mV) and seawater (459 mV) electrolytes, and notably, the cathode can maintain superior long‐lasting stability in seawater electrolysis. The mechanism exploration demonstrates that the ruthenium cathode with Cu@Runc pair sites exhibits low oxophilic and fast proton‐transferring local reaction environments to prohibit the formation of insoluble precipitates and provide efficient proton supply within the electrode‐seawater interface. It is expected that the proposed bioinspired regulation strategy offers a new pathway for constructing efficient, robust, and selective cathode materials for scalable seawater hydrogen production.

Internal revenue sharing methodology for virtual power plant clusters considering carbon incentive and penalty mechanisms

With the rapid development of renewable energy and the urgent need for global carbon emission reduction, virtual power plants have become a high-profile energy management model that can integrate multiple energy resources. How to effectively integrate renewable energy to reduce carbon emissions, how to optimize the use of different energy resources, and how to fairly distribute economic benefits within virtual power plant clusters while encouraging the reduction of carbon emissions are issues that need to be addressed in research. The study first established a virtual power plant model and conducted in-depth optimization for its economic and environmental indicators. Subsequently, the study constructed a game model within the virtual power plant cluster, aiming to solve the problem of income distribution in this diversified energy system. The research results found that commercial users have the highest carbon emissions, followed by industrial users, while residential users have the lowest carbon emissions. In terms of optimized user electricity consumption behavior, the peak-to-valley difference rate of industrial users has been reduced by 17%, and the daily load rate has increased by 6%; the peak-to-valley difference rate of commercial users has been reduced by 12%, and the daily load rate has increased by 6%; The peak-to-trough difference rate for residential users decreased by 8%, and the daily load rate increased by 4%. In addition, the research also proposes a method of internal revenue distribution of virtual power plant clusters based on a carbon reward and punishment mechanism, which provides a new way for the synergy effects and economic benefit distribution of virtual power plants. Research is of positive significance in solving pressing issues in the field of energy management and provides strong support for the development of future sustainable energy systems.

Sustainable Energy Planning and Management Vol 39

This 38th volume of the International Journal of Sustainable Energy Planning and Management presents some of the newest work within the planning of future sustainable energy systems based on renewable energy sources. In this issue, we focus on developments in Indonesia within renewable energy exploitation, electricity use in Africa and finally subsidy schemes for renewable energy exploitation in Indonesia

The effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on Malaysian residential customers’ energy-saving appliance purchasing behaviour

Purpose The COVID-19 pandemic has caused a dramatic impact on energy supply and demand. It is vital to understand households’ behaviour with regard to energy, particularly during the pandemic, to deploy future sustainable energy systems. This study aims to investigate the nexus of Malaysian households’ energy consumption behaviour in relation to various electrical appliances, their energy-saving appliance purchasing behaviour and their current possession of energy-saving appliances during the pandemic, especially during the lockdown period, from the perspective of the energy cultures framework. Design/methodology/approach The partial least squares structural equation modelling technique was used to test hypothesised relationships based on the 1,485 pieces of household data collected using an online and physical survey during the lockdown period in Malaysia. Findings The energy-saving behaviour cultivated due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic led to residential customers’ intentions to purchase energy-saving appliances which subsequently led to their current possession of energy-saving appliances. Indeed, energy-saving behaviours in the kitchen, entertainment, office, home lighting and cooling appliances have more than 77.4% influence on their purchasing behaviour. The consumer’s purchase behaviour for energy-saving appliances has a significant, partially mediating influence on the energy-saving behaviour of various electrical appliances and the consumers’ current possession of energy-saving appliances. Research limitations/implications This study could be enhanced by improving the sample using a higher-income group and involving other parts of Malaysia such as the southern region. The findings do extend the energy cultures framework by demonstrating the mediating role of households’ energy-saving appliance purchasing behaviour on the relationship between their energy consumption behaviour in relation to various electrical appliances and their current possession of energy-saving appliances. Practical implications The results of this study will help develop future action plans for transitioning to energy-saving appliance practices. Originality/value This paper examines the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on future energy efficiency practices in developing countries from the perspective of the energy cultures framework.

Synergistically coupling of trimetallic sulfides on Ni foam as porous self-supported electrodes for alkaline water splitting

The development of highly active, highly durable, and inexpensive electrode materials for water electrolysis is essential for future sustainable energy systems. Herein, we demonstrate heterostructures of metal sulfides deposited on Ni foam (NF) through electrodeposition for highly efficient water splitting. Iron-cobalt-nickel sulfides deposited on Ni foam (FeCoNiS@NF) exhibit a low overpotential of 302 mV (at 50 mA cm−2) for OER, and molybdenum-cobalt-nickel sulfides on Ni foam (MoCoNiS@NF) can provide a current density of 10 mA cm−2 at an overpotential of 114 mV for HER in alkaline solution. The lower charge-transfer resistance and Tafel slope values for FeCoNiS@NF and MoCoNiS@NF electrodes demonstrate the favorable reaction kinetics toward OER and HER, respectively, resulting from their intrinsic catalytic activity, good electrical conductivity, and accessible active sites. Furthermore, FeCoNiS@NF as anode and MoCoNiS@NF as cathode require a cell voltage of 1.68 V to produce a current density of 10 mA cm−2 with impressive durability under alkaline conditions, further proving the advancement and potential of trimetallic sulfides with optimal interfaces in the development of cost-effective electrodes for alkaline water splitting.

Phase-Controlled Synthesis of Nickel-Cobalt-Iron Sulfides By Electrodeposition for Efficient Oxygen Evolution Reaction

Water electrolysis is an appealing and sustainable technology to produce clean hydrogen fuels to resolve the energy and environmental crisis. The development of highly efficient, stable, and cost-effective electrocatalysts for oxygen evolution reaction (OER) is crucial for future sustainable energy systems. In this work, the synthesis of nickel-cobalt-iron sulfides deposited on Ni foam (NiCoFeS@NF) was successfully realized via a facile electrodeposition method. It was found that the deposition potentials could affect the phase and nanostructures of nickel-cobalt-iron sulfides. The electrocatalyst NiCoFeS@NF was obtained by applying a deposition potential of -1.2 V (vs. Ag/AgCl), which exhibits superior OER activity in alkaline media with overpotentials of 309 mV and 370 mV to reach the current densities of 20 mA cm-2 and 50 mA cm-2, respectively. The high OER activity of NiCoFeS@NF is mainly attributed to the collaborative advantages of trimetallic sulfides and the porous conductive Ni foam as substrate. The introduce of iron to nickel-cobalt sulfides could generate more active sites for OER, and Ni foam can provide large area for active sites and facilitate the mass transport during the electrochemical process. This study highlights the importance of the construction of trimetallic sulfides with heterostructures, providing insights into the OER performance.

Geographically informed automated non-linear topology optimization of district heating networks

District heating networks are becoming an important component of future sustainable energy systems, providing space heating and hot water to buildings. The design of these networks can be complex and requires accurate consideration of various factors including geographical location, building characteristics, and energy demand. Here we propose a methodology to base automated non-linear optimization of district heating networks (DHNs) on geographical data. By integrating Geographic Information Systems (GIS) data with a non-linear optimization algorithm, an optimal network design and topology are determined that minimize the total cost of the system while ensuring heat demand satisfaction of the served buildings. The potential pipe routing is based on the existing street network and the building heat demands are derived from actual metered demand data. The approach is applied to a case study, hereby demonstrating its effectiveness in finding an optimal design for a challenging problem with producers at different temperature levels and varying consumer characteristics. The study shows that taking into account the geographical constraints and characteristics of buildings, the approach allows for more accurate and efficient system design. Partial automation on the input of optimization process also has the potential to significantly reduce the time and effort required for early stage planning of DHNs.

Hydrogen production from seawater splitting enabled by on-line flow-electrode capacitive deionization

The conventional method of hydrogen production relies on non-renewable fossil fuels, which conflicts with the objective of future renewable and sustainable energy system. Seawater splitting for hydrogen production using offshore wind/solar power shows much promise as the solution for hydrogen-based energy systems coupling renewable energy. Direct seawater splitting is currently not feasible at a large scale due to its unsatisfactory durability caused by the anodic chloride corrosion which will make the catalyst deactivated and the substrate disintegrated. To tackle the anodic corrosion issue, here we present a novel seawater electrolysis system integrating an on-line flow-electrode capacitive deionization unit with a robust alkaline water electrolyzer. At an operating voltage of 1.6 V, the on-line deionization unit reaches a desalting ratio of 98.47%, so that the detrimental hypochlorite evolution could be greatly suppressed. Combined with a corrosion-resistant anode material—S-NiFeOOH@Ni foam, the connected electrolysis system achieves durable operation for 100 h at industrial-level current density (500 mA cm−2) with the anodic overpotential only at 296 mV. This novel system provides a practical solution for large-scale seawater splitting.

Meteorological conditions during periods of low wind speed and insolation in Germany: The role of weather regimes

AbstractRenewable power generation from wind and solar energy is strongly dependent on the weather. To plan future sustainable energy systems that are robust to weather variability, a better understanding of why and when periods of low wind and solar power output occur is valuable. We call such periods of low wind speed and insolation “Dunkelflauten”, the German word for “dark wind lulls”. In this article, we analyse the meteorological conditions during Dunkelflauten in Germany by applying the concept of weather regimes. Weather regimes are quasi‐stationary, recurrent and persistent large‐scale circulation patterns that explain multi‐day atmospheric variability (5–15 days). We use a regime definition that allows us to distinguish four different types of blocked regimes, characterized by high‐pressure situations in the North Atlantic‐European region. We find that Dunkelflauten in Germany occur mainly in winter when the solar power output is low due to the seasonal cycle of solar irradiance and wind power output drops for several consecutive days. A high‐pressure system over Germany, associated with the European Blocking regime, is responsible for most of the Dunkelflauten. Dunkelflauten during the Greenland Blocking regime are associated with colder temperatures than usual, causing higher electricity demand, and would present a particular challenge as space heating becomes electrified in the future. Furthermore, we show that Dunkelflauten occur predominantly when a weather regime is well established and persists longer than usual. Our study provides novel insight into the occurrence and meteorological characteristics of Dunkelflauten, which is essential for planning resilient energy systems and supporting grid operators to prepare for potential shortages in supply.

Unveiling Interfacial Effects for Efficient and Stable Hydrogen Evolution Reaction on Ruthenium Nanoparticles-Embedded Pentlandite Composites.

Heterogenous catalysis is important for future clean and sustainable energy systems. However, an urgent need to promote the development of efficient and stable hydrogen evolution catalysts still exists. In this study, ruthenium nanoparticles (Ru NPs) are in situ grown on Fe5 Ni4 S8 support (Ru/FNS) by replacement growth strategy. An efficient Ru/FNS electrocatalyst with enhanced interfacial effect is then developed and successfully applied for pH-universal hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). The Fe vacancies formed by FNS during the electrochemical process are found to be conducive to the introduction and firm anchoring of Ru atoms. Compared to Pt atoms, Ru atoms get easily aggregated and then grow rapidly to form NPs. This induces more bonding between Ru NPs and FNS, preventing the fall-off of Ru NPs and maintaining the structural stability of FNS. Moreover, the interaction between FNS and Ru NPs can adjust the d-band center of Ru NPs, as well as balance the hydrolytic dissociation energy and hydrogen binding energy. Consequently, the as-prepared Ru/FNS electrocatalyst exhibits excellent HER activity and improved cycle stability under pH-universal conditions. The developed pentlandite-based electrocatalysts with low cost, high activity, and good stability are promising candidates for future applications in water electrolysis.

Social acceptance of green hydrogen in Germany: building trust through responsible innovation

BackgroundSocial acceptance presents a major challenge for Germany’s transition to green energy. As a power-to-x technology, green hydrogen is set to become a key component of a future sustainable energy system. With a view to averting conflicts like those surrounding wind energy, we have investigated social acceptance of green hydrogen at an early stage in its implementation, before wider rollout. Our study uses a mixed-method approach, wherein semi-structured interviews (n = 24) and two participatory workshops (n = 51) in a selected region in central Germany serve alongside a representative survey (n = 2054) as the basis for both understanding social attitudes and reaching generalisable conclusions.ResultsOverall, it is possible to observe both a marked lack of knowledge and a large degree of openness towards green hydrogen and its local use, along with high expectations regarding environmental and climate protection. We reach three key conclusions. First, acceptance of green hydrogen relies on trust in science, government, the media, and institutions that uphold distributive justice, with consideration for regional values playing a vital role in establishing said trust. Second, methodologically sound participatory processes can promote acceptance, and active support in particular. Third, recurrent positive participatory experiences can effectively foster trust.ConclusionsAccordingly, we argue that trust should be strengthened on a structural level, and that green hydrogen acceptance should be understood as a matter of responsible innovation. As the first empirical investigation into social acceptance of green hydrogen, and by conceptually interlinking acceptance research and responsible innovation, this study constitutes an important contribution to existing research.

Global trading of renewable electricity-based fuels and chemicals to enhance the energy transition across all sectors towards sustainability

Renewable electricity-based fuels and chemicals are expected to play an ever-growing role in future sustainable energy systems. e-Fuels and e-chemicals are crucial for the defossilisation of hard-to-abate segments in long-distance aviation and marine, as well as industrial feedstocks. This study evaluates the role of e-fuels and e-chemicals in a global energy system transition from 2030 to 2050 by analysing the demand for these fuels, potential for production, and costs. Furthermore, the global trading potential of e-fuels and corresponding benefits are assessed. The wide availability of renewable resources enables the diversification of energy markets compared to the current concentrated fossil fuels trade, leading to lower volumes of traded e-products than currently traded volumes of fossil fuels. South America, sub-Saharan Africa, and Middle East and North Africa regions emerge as important exporters of e-fuels and e-chemicals. This study estimates that 23–32% of the total demand will be traded, depending on the type of e-fuel and e-chemical. Results indicate that global trade will reduce the global average levelised cost of e-fuels and e-chemicals by 4.4–6.8% in 2050, with some regions yielding a reduction of up to 38% compared to a self-supply scenario. Globally, the trading of e-fuels and e-chemicals is estimated to reduce total energy costs by 136 b€ annually. The risk of supply disruptions to importers can be mitigated with diversified portfolio strategies combining different exporting regions. Global trade benefits both importers, as the costs of e-fuels and e-chemicals are reduced, and exporters that benefit from additional income, employment, and tax revenues.

Computational Study on the Influence of Duct on The Performance of Darrieus Hydro-Turbine

Hydropower is considered one of the most reliable, inexpensive and environmentally friendly sources of renewable energies and it is predicted to play a significant role in future sustainable energy systems. The straight-blade Darrieus turbine is receiving more attention as it is simple to build at an inexpensive cost. However, Darrieus turbines still have a lower efficiency as opposed to axial turbines. Therefore, in this study, the Darrieus turbine is equipped with a duct geometry in the center in order to enhance its conversion efficiency using the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation technique. A 2D simulation model with NACA 663-018 airfoil profile is developed to perform the simulation in Ansys Fluent software while using the K-ω shear stress transport (SST) as the turbulence model. The computational simulations cover a parametric study based on the variation of the rotational speeds while keeping the upstream velocity constant. The performances are evaluated in terms of power, power coefficient, torque and torque coefficient. The simulation results showed that the power coefficient and torque coefficient were found to increase with the rotational speeds with the highest efficiency at the TSR of 2 and then decrease. A similar conclusion was drawn in terms of power and torque output. However, the maximum power coefficient and torque coefficient were about 54% and 27%, respectively.

A highly efficient and durable self-standing iron-cobalt-nickel trimetallic phosphide electrode for oxygen evolution reaction

The development of cost-effective, highly efficient, and durable oxygen evolution reaction (OER) electrocatalysts is both a necessity and challenge for large-scale water electrolyzers, which is crucial for future sustainable and clean energy systems. Here we report a self-standing trimetallic phosphide (FeCoNi-P/NF) electrode prepared by the electroreduction of Fe2O3 and Co3O4 on the Ni foam in molten salts and the subsequent phosphorization process. In the electroreduction process, the Ni source provided by Ni foam participates in the alloying process as a solvent phase, which leads to the strong bonding between the substrate and the active material. In addition, the alloys grown by co-reduction and alloying on the three-dimensional skeleton of the Ni foam can expose more active sites by increasing the surface areas through the phosphorization process. Benefiting from the synergistic effects and strong electronic coupling from the Fe, Co, and Ni trinary phosphides, the FeCoNi-P/NF shows excellent OER activity and stability with an overpotential of only 239.5 mV at 10 mA cm−2 and a long-term stability of more than 200 h at 50–300 mA cm−2 in 1.0 M KOH. Overall, this paper offers a straightforward method to prepare low-cost and durable muti-component transition metal-based self-standing OER electrodes.

Techno-economic scenario analysis of containerized solar energy for use cases at the food/water/health nexus in Rwanda

‘Containerized’ infrastructure solutions have the potential to power the needs of under-resourced communities at the Food/Water/Health nexus, particularly for off-grid, underserved, or remote populations. Drawing from a uniquely large sample of identical containerized solar photovoltaic energy deployments in Rwanda (“Boxes” from OffGridBox), we estimate the potential reach and impact that a massive scale-up of such a flexible, modular approach could entail for fast-growing yet resource-constrained communities around the world. This analysis combines modeled and in-the-field data to consider three use cases (water, food, and health), across optimistic and realistic scenarios. We estimate pollution externalities and compare this solution to incumbent technologies, incorporating uncertainties. In our optimistic scenarios, this containerized solution could provide for either 2083 individuals' daily drinking water needs, 1674 individuals' daily milk consumption, or 100% of a health clinic's energy demand. We then quantify the added benefit of providing these loads using solar energy instead of the incumbent non-renewable diesel generator in terms of cost and air quality, and incorporate the sensitivity of results to uncertainties using Monte Carlo Analysis simulations. For water purification and milk chilling uses, we find that solar has a lower lifecycle cost of energy; 0.39 and 0.38 USD/kWh respectively compared to 0.63 [range: 0.52, 0.80] USD/kWh and 0.59 [range: 0.48, 0.76] USD/kWh for diesel. Additionally, solar has lower cost variability and avoids pollutant and greenhouse emissions (e.g., 85,799.08 kgs [range: 66,830.49, 115,491.30] of carbon dioxide over the 20-year system lifetime). Moving beyond the standard energy modeling of previous literature, this analysis is uniquely able to inform future sustainable energy systems at the Food/Water/Health nexus.

On Machine Learning-Based Techniques for Future Sustainable and Resilient Energy Systems

Permanently increasing penetration of converter-interfaced generation and renewable energy sources (RESs) makes modern electrical power systems more vulnerable to low probability and high impact events, such as extreme weather, which could lead to severe contingencies, even blackouts. These contingencies can be further propagated to neighboring energy systems over coupling components/technologies and consequently negatively influence the entire multi-energy system (MES) (such as gas, heating and electricity) operation and its resilience. In recent years, machine learning-based techniques (MLBTs) have been intensively applied to solve various power system problems, including system planning, or security and reliability assessment. This paper aims to review MES resilience quantification methods and the application of MLBTs to assess the resilience level of future sustainable energy systems. The open research questions are identified and discussed, whereas the future research directions are identified.

Techno-economic viability of renewable electricity surplus to green hydrogen and biomethane, for a future sustainable energy system: Hints from Southern Italy

The fast deployment of renewable energy in Italy by 2030, according to the National Energy and Climate Plan, will lead to renewable electricity surplus mainly in Southern Italy where adequate energy storage is not currently available. In this paper, a Power to Green Hydrogen followed by a methanation process is proposed to accelerate decarbonisation and the integration of higher shares of variable renewable energies in Southern Italy. Green hydrogen can be injected directly into the natural gas grid or used to produce biomethane that can be injected afterwards into the natural gas grid. The main results of our assessment are: 1) 819 – 1,638 Mm3 green hydrogen that could be produced by water electrolysis using the renewable electricity surplus; 2) 160 Mm3 biomethane produced through biogas upgrading and 3) 14 – 117 Mm3 additional biomethane produced through methanation by using biogenic carbon dioxide from biogas upgrading. The approach would enable a) green hydrogen production cost competitive with grey hydrogen (44 €/MWh) only when the electrolysis system uses electricity for free and its load factor is above 1,800 h/y and 5,000 h/y for the optimistic and conservative case, respectively; b) biomethane production cost via biogas upgrading (about 58 €2020/MWh); and c) biomethane production cost via methanation competitive versus natural gas price (30 €/MWh) only when using electricity for free and operates at full load for over 5,400 h/y in the optimistic case.

Efficient Visible-Light-Driven Hydrogen Production over Cu-Modified Polyoxotungstate Hybrids.

Hydrogen energy is a renewable and clean source, which makes a great difference in future sustainable energy systems. Visible-light-driven photocatalysis reaction involves harnessing the abundance of sunlight for hydrogen production among many catalytic technologies. However, the fabrication of photocatalysts that have distinctive performance in visible light is still the primary challenge. Herein, two new Cu-modified polyoxotungstate hybrids, {[Cu2(bim)4(H2O)2](HBW12O40)2·(H2bim)2·8H2O} (1) (bim = [1,1'-methylenebis(1H-imidazole)]) and {[Cu2(bim)4(H2O)2](H3PW10Ti2O40)2·(H2bim)2·8H2O} (2), have been successfully isolated by bridging two saturated Keggin polyoxotungstates and copper-azole complexes. Not surprisingly, 2 holds higher reduction activity due to the more negative charge and stronger basicity on the terminal oxygen of Ti═O and bridge oxygen of Ti-O-W. The H2 yield was 17075 μmol g-1 h-1 for 2 in the tunable light-driven H2 production system, which is promising in the field of photocatalysis.

Large–Scale, High-Performance, Durable and Low-Cost Membrane Electrode Assemblies for Proton Exchange Membrane Water Electrolyzers

Proton exchange membrane (PEM) water electrolyzers, designed to produce hydrogen from intermittent renewable energy, will play a key role in future sustainable energy systems.1 However, the widespread commercialization of PEM water electrolyzers is obstructed by their high cost, low durability, and safety concerns related to the hydrogen crossover. Currently, the production cost of green H2 is in the range of $3-8 kg-1. In order to boost the commercialization of this clean energy devices and lower the production cost of green H2, DOE implemented targets of $2 kg-1 by 2025 and $1 kg-1 hydrogen by 2030.2 In addition, the durability of all electrolyzer components has to be improved in order to increase the lifetime of a PEM water electrolyzer stack to the targeted 80,000 hours. These challenging targets inspired the researchers all over the world to work on development of novel catalyst and catalyst layers with decreased platinum group metal (PGM) loadings, invent new cost-effective methods for fabrication of membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs), develop innovative designs for the MEAs capable of decreasing the hydrogen crossover, and improve the corrosion resistance of the cell hardware and the other stack components to enhance their durability.In this work, the unique Reactive Spray Deposition Technology (RSDT) is used to fabricate a high-performance, durable, and low-cost MEAs with geometric area of 680 cm2. These large scale MEAs have one order of magnitude lower PGM loadings in their catalyst layers in comparison to the state-of-the-art (SOA) commercial MEAs. The RSDT is a flame-based method that combines the catalysts synthesis and electrodes deposition in one step and thus substantially reduces the time and cost for MEAs fabrication.3–5 As fabricated large-scale MEAs with 680 cm2 geometric area of their electrodes, have loadings of 0.2 mgPt/cm2 in the cathode and 0.3 mgIr/cm2 in the anode, which are 10 times lower than the loadings in the SOA MEAs. The MEAs of interest have been tested at steady-state conditions that are typical for an industrial hydrogen production system for over 1000 hours. The cell voltage transients, as well as the periodically measured polarization curves during the test, clearly show that as fabricated MEAs have excellent activity and durability performance. Furthermore, the RSDT fabricated MEAs have integrated dual recombination layers that effectively reduce the hydrogen crossover to below 10 % LFL at all measured current densities (from 0.58 to 1.8 A/cm2). In addition, the MEA was subjected to comprehensive post-test analysis to study the degradation mechanisms governing the performance loss during the long-term durability test, and the results obtained will be presented and discussed in this presentation.Reference1. C. Van Pham, D. Escalera-López, K. Mayrhofer, S. Cherevko, and S. Thiele, Adv. Energy Mater., 11 (2021).2. https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-shot-summit-proceedings-panel-session-1-electrolysis3. H. Yu, N. Danilovic, Y. Wang, W. Willis, A. Poozhikunnath, L. Bonville, C. Capuano, K. Ayers, and R. Maric, Appl. Catal. B Environ., 239, 133–146 (2018).4. G. Mirshekari, R. Ouimet, Z. Zeng, H. Yu, S. Bliznakov, L. Bonville, A. Niedzwiecki, C. Capuano, K. Ayers, and R. Mari, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 46, 1526–1539 (2021).5. H. Yu, L. Bonville, J. Jankovic, and R. Maric, Appl. Catal. B Environ., 260, 118194 (2020).