Future Carbon Stocks Research Articles

Existing and Future Carbon Stock of Mangrove Restoration of the REMAJA PHE ONWJ Program in Mekarpohaci Village, Karawang Regency, Indonesia

Existing and Future Carbon Stock of Mangrove Restoration of the REMAJA PHE ONWJ Program in Mekarpohaci Village, Karawang Regency, Indonesia

Historic Land Use Modifies Impacts of Climate and Isolation in Rear Edge European Beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) Populations.

Legacies of human land use have the potential to impact demographic responses to climate. However, few studies have investigated the interactive effects of land use legacies and climate change on tree demography. The demographic performance of rear edge populations in particular is an important determinant of a species' long-term persistence. In this study, we investigated whether human land use legacies affect demographic responses to climate and population isolation in rear edge European beech populations (Fagus sylvatica L.) at the temperate-Mediterranean transition zone in the NE Iberian Peninsula. We utilised data from the Spanish Forest Inventory and generalised linear mixed models to compare the potential interactions across four different demographic rates (tree growth, survival probability, new adult recruitment and sapling recruitment). We found that the demographic rates were affected by the combination of land use legacies, climate and population isolation in different ways, which could potentially lead to complex shifts in future population dynamics under climate change. We identified that intense historic management either magnified negative relationships between tree demography and climate or population isolation, or reduced demographic performance in favourable climates to levels observed in unfavourable climates. Through either form of interaction, we found that intense historic forest management had a negative impact on tree demography, which has the potential to compromise future carbon stocks and long-term population viability. Overall, we show that disentangling human and environmental factors can enable us to better understand heterogeneous demographic performance across the rear edge of species distributions.

Multi-Scenario Simulation of Land Use and Assessment of Carbon Stocks in Terrestrial Ecosystems Based on SD-PLUS-InVEST Coupled Modeling in Nanjing City

In the context of achieving the goal of carbon neutrality, exploring the changes in land demand and ecological carbon stocks under future scenarios at the urban level is important for optimizing regional ecosystem services and developing a land-use structure consistent with sustainable development strategies. We propose a framework of a coupled system dynamics (SD) model, patch generation land-use simulation (PLUS) model, and integrated valuation of ecosystem services and trade-offs (InVEST) model to dynamically simulate the spatial and temporal changes of land use and land-cover change (LUCC) and ecosystem carbon stocks under the NDS (natural development scenario), EPS (ecological protection scenario), RES (rapid expansion scenario), and HDS (high-quality development scenario) in Nanjing from 2020 to 2040. From 2005 to 2020, the expansion rate of construction land in Nanjing reached 50.76%, a large amount of ecological land shifted to construction land, and the ecological carbon stock declined dramatically. Compared with 2020, the ecosystem carbon stocks of the EPS and HDS increased by 2.4 × 106 t and 1.5 × 106 t, respectively, with a sizable ecological effect. It has been calculated that forest and cultivated land are the two largest carbon pools in Nanjing, and the conservation of both is decisive for the future carbon stock. It is necessary to focus on enhancing the carbon stock of forest ecosystems while designating differentiated carbon sink enhancement plans based on the characteristics of other land types. Fully realizing the carbon sink potential of each ecological functional area will help Nanjing achieve its carbon neutrality goal. The results of the study not only reveal the challenges of ecological conservation in Nanjing but also provide useful guidance for enhancing the carbon stock of urban terrestrial ecosystems and formulating land-use planning in line with sustainable development strategies.

Impacts of Land‐Use Change on Past and Future Carbon Stocks in the Tianshan North Slope Economic Belt

Impacts of Land‐Use Change on Past and Future Carbon Stocks in the Tianshan North Slope Economic Belt

Estimating carbon sequestration potential and optimizing management strategies for Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) forests using machine learning

Estimating the carbon sequestration potential of Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) forests and optimizing management strategies play pivotal roles in enhancing quality and promoting sustainable development. However, there is a lack of methods to simulate changes in carbon sequestration capacity in Moso bamboo forests and to screen and optimize the best management measures based on long-term time series data from fixed-sample fine surveys. Therefore, this study utilized continuous survey data and climate data from fixed sample plots in Zhejiang Province spanning from 2004 to 2019. By comparing four different algorithms, namely random forest, support vector machine, XGBoost, and BP neural network, to construct aboveground carbon stock models for Moso bamboo forests. The ultimate goal was to identify the optimal algorithmic model. Additionally, the key driving parameters for future carbon stocks were considered and future aboveground carbon stocks were predicted in Moso bamboo forests. Then formulated an optimal management strategy based on these predictions. The results indicated that the carbon stock model constructed using the XGBoost algorithm, with an R2 of 0.9895 and root mean square error of 0.1059, achieved the best performance and was considered the optimal algorithmic model. The most influential driving parameters for vegetation carbon stocks in Moso bamboo forests were found to be mean age, mean diameter at breast height, and mean culm density. Under optimal management measures, which involve no harvesting of 1–3 du bamboo, 30% harvesting of 4 du bamboo, and 80% harvesting of bamboo aged 5 du and above. Our predictions show that aboveground carbon stocks in Moso bamboo forests in Zhejiang Province will peak at 36.25 ± 8.47 Tg C in 2046 and remain stable from 2046 to 2060. Conversely, degradation is detrimental to the long-term maintenance of carbon sequestration capacity in Moso bamboo forests, resulting in a peak aboveground carbon stock of 29.50 ± 7.49 Tg C in 2033, followed by a continuous decline. This study underscores the significant influence of estimating carbon sequestration potential and optimizing management decisions on enhancing and sustaining the carbon sequestration capacity of Moso bamboo forests.

Identification of Suitable Mangrove Distribution Areas and Estimation of Carbon Stocks for Mangrove Protection and Restoration Action Plan in China

Mangrove forests are significant blue carbon pools on the Earth with strong carbon sequestration capacity and play an important role in combating climate change. To improve the capacity of regional carbon sinks, China has implemented a Special Action Plan for Mangrove Protection and Restoration (2020–2025). In this context, based on the MaxEnt model, this study analyzed the important environmental factors affecting the distribution of mangrove forests, combined with the planning objectives and carbon density parameters of different regions; assessed the habitat suitability areas of China’s mangrove forests; and predicted their future carbon stock potential. The results showed the following: (1) Elevation was the most important factor affecting the overall distribution of mangrove forests in China, and the optimal elevation of mangrove distribution was 0.52 m. (2) The most suitable areas of mangrove forests in China were mainly distributed in Hainan, Guangxi, and Guangdong, which had great potential for carbon stock. Danzhou Bay and Hongpai Harbor in Hainan, Lianzhou Bay in Guangxi, and the Huangmao Sea in Guangdong are potential areas for habitat suitability but are not yet under high levels of protection. (3) Achieving the goals of this action plan was expected to increase carbon stocks by 4.13 Tg C. Other suitable areas not included in this plan could still increase carbon stocks by 7.99 Tg C in the long term. The study could provide a scientific basis for siting mangrove restoration areas and developing efficient management policies.

Modeling future carbon stock in melon cultivation agroecosystems under different climate scenarios

Intensive melon cultivation is based on conventional monoculture models that can inefficiently use natural resources, which, combined with inadequate management, contribute to climate change. The main objective of this study was to model the future carbon stock in melon cultivation agroecosystems under different climate scenarios. The study was conducted at the Bebedouro Experimental Field of Embrapa Semi-arid, Petrolina/PE, Brazil, in an area cultivated with yellow melon cv. Gladial, and eight cultivation cycles were considered. The experimental design was composed of two types of soil management (with and without tillage), two treatments using green manures consisting of 14 species with different proportions of legumes, grasses and oilseeds, and spontaneous vegetation, containing four replications divided into randomized blocks. After 70 days of development, the plants were cut and placed in the soil. Temperature and precipitation data were acquired from the BCC-CSM, MIROC5, CESM1-BGC, IPSL-CM5B-LR, and HadGEM2-AO climate models, following the RCP 4.5 and 8.5 climate scenarios. The carbon (C) stock was estimated until the year 2071 using the RothC model.

Middle-aged forests in the Eastern U.S. have significant climate mitigation potential

Middle-aged forests in the Eastern U.S. are broadly defined to consist of forests between the regeneration phase following harvest or disturbance, and an older phase with forests composed of large trees, complex structure, and increasing natural mortality. Study objectives were to develop new carbon accumulation curves based on recent inventory data that represent the actual growth rates of forests as they advance beyond middle age; quantify the projected carbon sink from reducing or increasing harvest of middle-aged forests; and disseminate credible estimates of future carbon stocks in ecosystems and harvested wood products to support policies designed to enhance the role of forests in removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and storing it securely. We found that middle-aged Eastern U.S. forests could continue to accumulate carbon for many decades or several centuries in the absence of harvesting, with relatively low risk of natural disturbances. Compared with a recent study that estimated a potential increase in biomass of only 22%, and some analyses that anticipate significant increases in risks from natural disturbances, our results indicate a potential increase of about 100% over current biomass stocks by 2100. Temperate Continental forests have greater potential to increase carbon stock over longer time periods than Subtropical Humid forests. Results from scenario analyses showed that in the near term of 20–40 years, reducing harvest will yield the greatest reduction in net greenhouse gas emissions compared with business as usual. Under an extreme “no-harvest” scenario, C sequestration could increase by about 20 TgC yr−1 in Temperate Continental forests by 2050, and by about 30 TgC yr−1 in Subtropical Humid forests over the same time period. In contrast, a scenario of tripling harvest would increase C emissions by 30 and 60 TgC yr−1 in the Temperate Continental and Subtropical Humid ecozones by 2050, respectively. In the longer term of 80 or so years, all scenarios and “business as usual” converge toward similar impacts on greenhouse gas emissions, nearing neutrality in the Subtropical Humid ecozone but separated by about 30 TgC yr−1 in the Temperate Continental ecozone. Our estimated annual emission reduction from stopping harvest over the 73 million ha of middle-aged forests amounts to 117 Mg CO2 per year in 2050, equivalent to about 7% of the emissions from using fossil energy in the two ecozones. Increasing harvest would have the opposite effect of increasing emissions by a similar magnitude in 2050. How middle-aged forests in the Eastern U.S. are managed can clearly affect their contribution to achieving net-zero GHG emissions by 2050 and beyond.

Spatial and Temporal Variability Characteristics of Future Carbon Stocks in Anhui Province under Different SSP Scenarios Based on PLUS and InVEST Models

With the rapid development of the social economy, human activities have had a severe impact on the environment. The global climate issue caused by CO2 emissions has attracted the attention of various countries around the world, and reducing CO2 emissions is urgent. This article simulates the changes in carbon storage in Anhui Province from 2030 to 2070 based on SSP1-2.5, SSP2-4.5, and SSP5-5.8 scenarios. First, based on the land use data of Anhui Province in 2010, the PLUS model was used to simulate the land use data of 2015, and the accuracy of the simulation results was verified against real data. Then, the land use data of Anhui Province were simulated in the future period from 2030 to 2070 under different SSP scenarios. Finally, based on the InVEST model, the spatiotemporal changes in future carbon storage were calculated. The research showed that, during the period of 2030 to 2070, the spatial distribution of carbon storage in Anhui Province under three scenario simulations generally showed a distribution pattern of high carbon storage in the north and south, and low carbon storage in the central region. Under the SSP1-2.6 scenario, Anhui Province’s carbon storage decreased by 0.33 million tons, a decrease of 0.029%. Under the SSP2-4.5 scenario, carbon storage increased by 0.25 million tons, an increase of 0.021%. Under the SSP5-8.5 scenario, carbon storage decreased by 1.54 million tons, a decrease of 0.133%. The reasons for the changes in carbon storage were related to the areas of arable land, forest land, and grassland. This study can provide a reference for future low-carbon land use planning.

Grassland Carbon Change in Northern China under Historical and Future Land Use and Land Cover Change

Land use and land cover (LULC) change has greatly altered ecosystem carbon storage and exerted an enormous impact on terrestrial carbon cycling. Characterizing its impact on ecosystem carbon storage is critical to balance regional carbon budgets and make land use decisions. However, due to the availability of LULC data and the strong variability in LULC change, uncertainty remains high in quantifying the effect of LULC change on the historical and future carbon stock. Based on four historical LULC maps and one future LULC projection, this study combined the Land Use and Carbon Scenario Simulator (LUCAS) with a process-based CENTURY model to evaluate the historical and future LULC change and its impact on grassland carbon storage from 1991 to 2050 in northern China. Results showed that grassland experienced a drastic decrease of 16.10 × 103 km2 before 2005, while agriculture and barren land increased by 16.91 × 103 km2 and 3.73 × 103 km2, respectively. After that, grassland was projected to increase, agriculture kept steady, and barren land decreased. LULC change has resulted in enormous total ecosystem carbon loss, mainly in agro-pasture areas; the maximum 8.54% of carbon loss happened in 2000, which was primarily attributed to agriculture to grassland, forest to grassland, grassland to agriculture, and grassland to barren. Before 2000, the grassland net biome productivity was projected to be −15.54 Tg C/yr and −2.69 Tg C/yr with and without LULC change. After 2001, the LULC change showed a positive impact on the grassland carbon balance, and the region was projected to be a carbon sink. Ecological projects have made a significant contribution to grassland carbon storage. The paper provides a framework to account for the effects of LULC change on ecosystem carbon and highlights the importance of improving grassland management in balancing the grassland carbon budget, which is helpful to understand the regional carbon budget and better inform local land use strategies.

Salinity‐induced limits to mangrove canopy height

AbstractAimMangrove canopy height is a key metric to assess tidal forests' resilience in the face of climate change. In terrestrial forests, tree height is primarily determined by water availability, plant hydraulic design, and disturbance regime. However, the role of water stress remains elusive in tidal environments, where saturated soils are prevalent, and salinity can substantially affect the soil water potential.LocationGlobal.Time PeriodThe canopy height dataset provides a global snapshot of the maximum mangrove height geographical distribution for the year 2000. Climate and environmental variables extend over the period 1970–2018.Major Taxa StudiedMangroves.MethodsWe use global observations of maximum canopy height, species richness, air temperature, and seawater salinity—a proxy of soil water salt concentration—to explore the causal link between salinity and mangrove stature.ResultsOur findings suggest that salt stress limits mangrove height. High salinity favours more salt‐tolerant species, narrowing the spectrum of viable traits. Highly salt‐tolerant mangroves have evolved to cope with high salt concentrations in the soil, but this adaptation comes at a cost. They typically have lower rates of photosynthesis and growth, resulting in reduced productivity and smaller stature compared to more salt‐sensitive mangrove species. This suggests a causal link between salinity, biodiversity, and tree height, where high salinity selects for more salt‐tolerant species that tend to be less productive and shorter.ConclusionsWe hypothesize that the salinity‐induced limit to mangrove canopy height is the direct result of a reduction of primary productivity, an increment in the risk of xylem cavitation, and an indirect consequence of the decrease in biodiversity. As sea‐level rise enhances coastal salinisation, failure to account for these effects can lead to incorrect estimates of future carbon stocks in Tropical coastal ecosystems and endanger preservation efforts.

An analysis of regional carbon stock response under land use structure change and multi-scenario prediction, a case study of Hefei, China

As the largest global carbon pool system, terrestrial ecosystems have an important role to maintain the stability of ecosystems. Human activities affect the structural changes in the ground surface and interfere with terrestrial ecosystem evolution, and consequently, carbon stock is changed in the region. Therefore, forecasting future carbon stock changes under different land use scenarios has important research implications for promoting stable evolution and cycling of terrestrial ecosystems. This study is conducted with the land use data from 2000 to 2020, and incorporates the Patch-generating Land Use Simulation model with the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-Offs model to analyze the changes in land use in Hefei, and its influence on the carbon stock in Hefei in various scenarios. During the study period, the mutual conversion between different land types in Hefei City made the land structure change within the study area more significant. The rapidly evolving surface structure is the reason for the decrease of carbon storage in terrestrial ecosystems, with a cumulative decrease of 1.2 × 108 t. The spatial distribution in carbon storage in the study area shows a distribution pattern of low in the north and high in the south. The high carbon storage area is obviously banded in the study area. The area with obvious changes in surface structure has more obvious changes in carbon storage. Compared with the natural development scenario, the downward trend of carbon storage in the ecological protection scenario and the comprehensive development scenario has slowed down due to the restrictions on the structural transformation of land types and the implementation of relevant ecological protection policies. Therefore, this study will support the future management and policy making of Hefei City with the background of China's “double carbon” target and the significant position of Hefei City.

Baseline high-resolution maps of organic carbon content in Australian soils

We introduce a new dataset of high-resolution gridded total soil organic carbon content data produced at 30 m × 30 m and 90 m × 90 m resolutions across Australia. For each product resolution, the dataset consists of six maps of soil organic carbon content along with an estimate of the uncertainty represented by the 90% prediction interval. Soil organic carbon maps were produced up to a depth of 200 cm, for six intervals: 0–5 cm, 5–15 cm, 15–30 cm, 30–60 cm, 60–100 cm and 100–200 cm. The maps were obtained through interpolation of 90,025 depth-harmonized organic carbon measurements using quantile regression forest and a large set of environmental covariates. Validation with 10-fold cross-validation showed that all six maps had relatively small errors and that prediction uncertainty was adequately estimated. The soil carbon maps provide a new baseline from which change in future carbon stocks can be monitored and the influence of climate change, land management, and greenhouse gas offset can be assessed.

Impacts of climate change on pine wilt disease outbreaks and associated carbon stock losses

Pine wilt disease (PWD) is a significant threat to forests worldwide. Large-scale PWD outbreaks in China underline the need to understand the current and future distributions of PWD. We constructed a principal components analysis (PCA)-based environmental filter method in a three dimensional (3D) space to correct the sample bias caused by the strong autocorrelation of PWD outbreaks. The MaxEnt model was used to estimate the relationships between PWD occurrence and environmental characteristics and to predict potential PWD risk areas under four shared socioeconomic pathways (SSP) scenarios (SSP126, SSP245, SSP370, and SSP585) over the period 2020–2100. The model showed improved performance by correcting the sampling bias, with high accuracy (area under the curve values of 0.87 and 0.92 for model training and testing, respectively). Isothermality and annual precipitation contributed most strongly to the distribution of PWD. The potential PWD distribution will increase in the near future (2021–2040) and will expand northward in 2061–2100 under the SSP370 and SSP585 scenarios. This study also provides detailed maps of current and future carbon stock losses caused by PWD, which show the current maximum losses (∼24.9% of total forest carbon stocks) and an increase of ∼39,000 km2 in carbon stock losses in the northeast China for the period 2061–2100 under the SSP370 and SSP585 scenarios. Overall, our results show dramatic spatiotemporal shifts in the PWD distribution and forest carbon stock losses under climate change scenarios, and will provide a useful reference for implementing pest control techniques and forest management strategies.

Assessing carbon stocks and accumulation potential of mature forests and larger trees in U.S. federal lands

Mature and old-growth forests (collectively “mature”) and larger trees are important carbon sinks that are declining worldwide. Information on the carbon value of mature forests and larger trees in the United States has policy relevance for complying with President Joe Biden’s Executive Order 14072 directing federal agencies to define and conduct an inventory of them for conservation purposes. Specific metrics related to maturity can help land managers define and maintain present and future carbon stocks at the tree and forest stand level, while making an important contribution to the nation’s goal of net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. We present a systematic method to define and assess the status of mature forests and larger trees on federal lands in the United States that if protected from logging could maintain substantial carbon stocks and accumulation potential, along with myriad climate and ecological co-benefits. We based the onset of forest maturity on the age at which a forest stand achieves peak net primary productivity. We based our definition of larger trees on the median tree diameter associated with the tree age that defines the beginning of stand maturity to provide a practical way for managers to identify larger trees that could be protected in different forest ecosystems. The average age of peak net primary productivity ranged from 35 to 75 years, with some specific forest types extending this range. Typical diameter thresholds that separate smaller from larger trees ranged from 4 to 18 inches (10–46 cm) among individual forest types, with larger diameter thresholds found in the Western forests. In assessing these maturity metrics, we found that the unprotected carbon stock in larger trees in mature stands ranged from 36 to 68% of the total carbon in all trees in a representative selection of 11 National Forests. The unprotected annual carbon accumulation in live above-ground biomass of larger trees in mature stands ranged from 12 to 60% of the total accumulation in all trees. The potential impact of avoiding emissions from harvesting large trees in mature forests is thus significant and would require a policy shift to include protection of carbon stocks and future carbon accumulation as an additional land management objective on federal forest lands.

Harvesting Intensity and Aridity Are More Important Than Climate Change in Affecting Future Carbon Stocks of Douglas-Fir Forests

Improved forest management may offer climate mitigation needed to hold warming to below 2°C. However, uncertainties persist about the effects of harvesting intensity on forest carbon sequestration, especially when considering interactions with regional climate and climate change. Here, we investigated the combined effects of harvesting intensity, climatic aridity, and climate change on carbon stocks in Douglas-fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii Mirb. (Franco)] stands. We used the Carbon Budget Model of the Canadian Forest Sector to simulate the harvest and regrowth of seven Douglas-fir stand types covering a 900 km-long climate gradient across British Columbia, Canada. In particular, we simulated stand growth under three regimes (+17%, −17% and historical growth increment) and used three temperature regimes [historical, representative concentration pathways (RCP) 2.6 and RCP 8.5]. Increasing harvesting intensity led to significant losses in total ecosystem carbon stocks 50 years post-harvest. Specifically, forests that underwent clearcutting were projected to stock about 36% less carbon by 2,069 than forests that were left untouched. Belowground carbon stocks 50 years into the future were less sensitive to harvesting intensity than aboveground carbon stocks and carbon losses were greater in arid interior Douglas-fir forests than in humid, more productive forests. In addition, growth multipliers and decay due to the RCP’s had little effect on total ecosystem carbon, but aboveground carbon declined by 7% (95% confidence interval [−10.98, −1.81]) in the high emissions (RCP8.5) scenario. We call attention to the implementation of low intensity harvesting systems to preserve aboveground forest carbon stocks until we have a more complete understanding of the impacts of climate change on British Columbia’s forests.

Changes in Mangrove Carbon Stocks and Exposure to Sea Level Rise (SLR) under Future Climate Scenarios

Mangrove ecosystems are threatened by a variety of anthropogenic changes, including climate change. The main aim of this research is to quantify the spatial variation in the different mangrove carbon stocks, aboveground carbon (AGC), belowground carbon (BGC), and soil carbon (SOC), under future climate scenarios. Additionally, we sought to identify the magnitude of sea-level rise (SLR) exposure with the view of identifying the mangrove regions most likely to face elevated inundation. Different representative concentration pathways (RCPs) ranging from the most optimistic (RCP 2.6) to medium emissions (RCP 4.5) and the most pessimistic (RCP 8.5) were considered for 2070. We used the Marine Ecoregions of the World (MEOW), a biogeographical classification of coastal ecosystems, to quantify the variation in future carbon stocks at a regional scale and identify areas of potential carbon stock losses and gains. Here, we showed that the mangroves of Central and Western Indo-Pacific islands (Andamans, Papua New Guinea, and Vanuatu), the west African coast, and northeastern South America will be the worst hit and are projected to affect all three carbon stocks under all future scenarios. For instance, the Andaman ecoregion is projected to have an 11–25% decline in SOC accumulation, while the Western Indo-Pacific realm is projected to undergo the sharpest declines, ranging from 10% to 12% under all three scenarios. Examples of these areas are those in Amazonia and the eastern part of South Asia (such as in the Northern Bay of Bengal ecoregion). Based on these findings, conservation management of mangroves can be conducted.

Current and future carbon stocks of natural forests in China

Natural regeneration of forests is the most cost-effective and most technically straightforward strategy to mitigate climate change. Natural forests account for 71% of China’s forested area, but their carbon stocks and sequestration potentials remain unclear. Here, we compiled data from 762 natural forest sites across China and found that natural forests had a carbon stock of 9.40 ± 1.45 Pg C in 2010. When naturally regenerated to the over-mature stage, existing natural forests can additionally sequestrate 8.67 ± 6.93 Pg C in the next two centuries, accounting for 48% of the carbon carrying capacity of the natural forest ecosystem in China, i.e. 18.07 ± 6.78 Pg C. Future carbon sequestration potential in natural forests is dominated by the tree layer at 6.88 ± 6.87 Pg, followed by the shrub layer at 1.02 ± 0.55 Pg, floor layer at 0.72 ± 0.74 Pg and herb layer at 0.05 ± 0.10 Pg. The natural forests are expected to achieve 70% of their future carbon sequestration potential by 2100. We also note that assisted regeneration via tree planting can play a significant role in natural forest restoration, as the carbon densities of natural and planted forests are rarely significantly different at the same age under 60 years old. Therefore, the preservation and expansion of natural forests is the key strategy for achieving long-term carbon sequestration.

Below zero

Massive CO2 removals will be necessary to avoid climate tipping. Comparing removals with past, current and future carbon stocks and flows reveals the importance of avoiding fossil emissions completely and developing scalable technical solutions.

MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM AND CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION: A LITERATURE REVIEW

Mangrove ecosystem has high productivity both ecologically and economically. Mangroveecosystems have the ability to store high carbon which is useful in supporting the reduction ofgreenhouse gas emissions. The results of previous studies have shown that mangroveecosystems are able to store carbon three to four times greater than terestrial forests. Most ofthe carbon are stored in the soil. Therefore, ecosystem mangroves have an important role tomitigate climate change. However, mangroves can be effective in supporting the mitigation ofcarbon dioxide emissions if mangrove deforestation rates are low. However, mangroves canstill contribute with great potential when conservation are maintained to increase future carbonstocks through restoration and prevent further emissions from deforestation. Existing data andprior research indicate that mangrove forests are threatened due to mangrove coveragereduction. This is caused by changes in land use. There are many conversions of mangrovesinto cultivation ponds, as well as conversions into agricultural land such as paddy fields andpastures, accompanied by an increase in demand for oil palm which causes land clearing. Inaddition, the population around the coastal area is increasing, resulting in the clearing ofmangrove land for infrastructure development such as road and port construction. In order toreduce the rate of mangrove deforestation, it is necessary to conserve and restore mangroves.By preserving mangrove forests, not only maintain carbon stocks for climate change mitigationbut also facilitate adaptation to climate change such as sea level rise.