Fused Filament Fabrication Printing Research Articles

Fabrication of three‐dimensional micropatterned hydrophobic surfaces by fused filament fabrication printing technology

AbstractIn recent years, the interest in structured hydrophobic surfaces has considerably grown, finding applications in many industrial fields, including aerospace, automotive, and biomedical. Three‐dimensional (3D) printing technology is a simple, rapid, and economic process to fabricate structured surfaces based on neat polymers and composite materials, allowing working with a wide variety of plastic materials. The manufactured surfaces show a roughness depending on the printing design and the printing resolution: this characteristic is ideal to achieve superhydrophobic properties. Furthermore, patterned surface structures can be printed by fused filament fabrication (FFF), so increasing the hydrophobic character of the samples; indeed, micro‐ and nanosurface structures are required to make a hydrophobic surface. In this study, 3D micropatterned textures of pillars were printed by FFF using polylactide (PLA) and polypropylene (PP) as polymer filaments and PLA/carbon nanotubes (PLA/CNTs) and PP/carbon fibers (PP/CF) as composite filaments. Morphologies of printed specimens were analyzed by optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Good correspondence was found between pillar dimensions and edge‐edge pillars distance of computer aided design (CAD) and composites 3D‐printed samples. Their wettability was evaluated by static contact angle (CA) measurements. Results clearly show a significant increase of water CA values up to 50% in all micropatterned samples with respect to flat surfaces. This improvement was achieved by surface microstructuring without the use of nanoparticles and/or chemical treatment.

Reduction of Process Induced Porosity for Ultrafuse 316L through Parameter Optimization of Creality Ender 3 V2 and Makerbot Method X

Metal-based additive manufacturing (MBAM) has enabled rapid prototyping and one-off production, but the cost of equipment has limited widespread adoption. Recent developments in hybrid filaments and processes have created more accessible methods for MBAM, leveraging common fused filament fabrication (FFF) printers and Ultrafuse 316L metal filament. This technique has shown promise but suffered from large pore formations along parallel print paths. To reduce the formation of process-dependent pores, a design of experiments (DOE) was conducted to investigate the effects of varying extrusion parameters such as layer height, line width, and extrusion multiplier for tensile samples produced on a Creality Ender 3 V2 and MakerBot Method X. Characterization techniques included tensile testing, microhardness, density measurements, and optical microscopy; findings were compared to samples produced via laser-powder bed fusion (L-PBF) and from 316L plate. The Method X produced components with approximately 1% porosity and the Ender 4% porosity. Mechanical properties for both FFF printers were comparable to previous research, with an increase in tensile strength for the Method X. Despite the increased porosity in the Ender samples, only a 7% reduction in strength from the average yield in Method X samples (153.6 MPa) was observed. It was found that a combination of increased layer height and extrusion rate led to improved mechanical properties in parts printed on the Ender, while the default Makerbot settings resulted in the best overall performance for Ultrafuse 316L samples.

Modification of a desktop FFF printer via NIR laser addition for upconversion 3D printing

Traditional photopolymer-based 3D printing methods require sequential printing of thin layers, due to short penetration depths of UV or blue light sources used by these techniques. In contrast, upconversion 3D printing circumvents the layer-by-layer limitation by taking advantage of upconversion luminescence processes and the high penetration depths offered by near-infrared (NIR) lasers, allowing for selective crosslinking of voxels at any depth or position within the resin container. The implementation of this technique required the construction of a 3D printer with the ability of focusing the laser on any point of the space. For this, a low-cost fused filament fabrication (FFF) printer was modified by incorporating a 980 nm laser and laser control circuit. The total cost of the parts required for modification was £180. With enhanced penetration depths up to 5.8 cm, this method also allows for printing inside or through existing 3D printed parts. This opens doors for restoration of broken items, in situ bioprinting, 3D-circuitry, and notably, 3D printing inside cavities of a different material, illustrating numerous opportunities for practical applications.

3D Printing of a Tidal Turbine Blade Using Two Methods of SLS and FFF of a Reinforced PA12 Composite: A Comparative Study

This study scrutinizes the thermomechanical dynamics of 3D-printed hydrofoil blades utilizing a carbon and glass bead-reinforced thermoplastic polymer. Comparative analyses underscore the pivotal role of polymer reinforcement in augmenting mechanical strength and mitigating deformation and residual stress. The investigation elucidates the expeditious and cost-efficient manufacturing potential of low-cost Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) printers for small-scale blades, revealing exemplary mechanical performance with nominal deflection and warping in the PA12-CB/GB printed blade. A comprehensive juxtaposition between Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) and FFF printing methods favors SLS due to its isotropic properties, notwithstanding remediable warping. Emphasizing the rigorous marine environment, the study cautions against the anisotropic properties of FFF-printed blades, despite their low mechanical warping. These discernments contribute to hydrofoil design optimization through numerical analysis, shedding light on additive manufacturing’s potential for small blades in renewable energy, while underscoring the imperative for further research to advance these techniques.

Trueness of five different 3D printing systems including budget- and professional-grade printers: An In vitro study

ProblemSeveral types of 3D printers with different techniques and prices are available on the market. However, results in the literature are inconsistent, and there is no comprehensive agreement on the accuracy of 3D printers of different price categories for dental applications. AimThis study aimed to investigate the accuracy of five different 3D printing systems, including a comparison of budget- and higher-end 3D printing systems, according to a standardized production and evaluation protocol. Material and methodsA maxillary reference model with prepared teeth was created using 16 half-ball markers with a diameter of 1 mm to facilitate measurements. A reference file was fabricated using five different 3D printers. The printed models were scanned and superimposed onto the original standard tesselation language (.stl) file, and digital measurements were performed to assess the 3-dimensional and linear deviations between the reference and test models. ResultsAfter examining the entire surface of the models, we found that 3D printers using Fused filament fabrication (FFF) technology −120.2 (20.3) μm create models with high trueness but high distortion. Distortions along the z-axis were found to be the highest with the stereolithography (SLA)-type 3D printer at −153.7 (38.7) μm. For the 4-unit FPD, we found 201.9 (41.8) μm deviation with the digital light processing (DLP) printer. The largest deviation (−265.1 (55.4) μm) between the second molars was observed for the DLP printer. Between the incisor and the second molar, the best results were produced by the FFF printer with −30.5 (76.7) μm. ConclusionBudget-friendly 3D printers are comparable to professional-grade printers in terms of precision. In general, the cost of a printing system is not a reliable indicator of its level of accuracy.

The effect of filler size on the properties of TPU / BN flexible thermal conductive composites prepared by Fused Filament Fabrication

Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) can promote high aspect-ratio fillers to align in specific direction due to deposition-induced effect, so it is widely used in the preparation of thermal conductive composites. Though many studies about FFF have explored the influence of filler types, content, shape, and orientation on thermal conductivity during FFF, the size effect of filler is neglected. In this work, TPU/BN composites with 30 wt% h-BN were successfully printed by Fused Filament Fabrication. The size effect of h-BN on orientation, morphology, thermal conductivity, and other properties were studied. It is found that large-sized fillers are more prone to orientation and mutual contact during the FFF printing process to form thermal conductive paths. An increase in filler size results in an increase in thermal conductivity along the printing direction, which is up to 2.58 W m−1 K−1. The prepared TPU/BN composite not only has high thermal conductivity but also ensures good flexibility.

Dual feed progressive cavity pump extrusion system for functionally graded direct ink write 3D printing

Material extrusion Additive Manufacturing (AM), is one of the most widely practiced methods of AM. Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) is what most associate with AM, as it is relatively inexpensive, and highly accessible, involving feeding plastic filament into a hot-end that melts and extrudes from a nozzle as the toolhead moves along the toolpath. Direct Ink Write (DIW) 3D printing falls into this same category of AM, however is primarily practiced in laboratory settings to construct novel parts from flowable feedstock materials. DIW printers are relatively expensive and often depend on custom software to print a part, limiting user-specificity. There have been recent advancements in multi-material and functionally graded DIW, but the systems are highly custom and the methods used to achieve multi-material prints are openly available to the public. The following article outlines the construction and operation method of a DIW system that is capable of printing that can produce compositionally-graded components using a dual feed progressive cavity pump extruder equipped with a dynamic mixer. The extruder and its capabilities to vary material composition while printing are demonstrated using a Prusa i3 MK3S+ desktop fused filament fabrication printer as the gantry system. This provides users ease of operation, and the capability of further tailoring to specific needs.

Characteristics of sintered calcium deficient hydroxyapatite scaffolds produced by 3D printing

This study investigates the parametric quality and reliability of 3D-printed scaffolds using a composite filament comprising a thermoplastic polymer and hydroxyapatite in 1:1 wt ratio. Employing a fused filament fabrication printer, we verified the 3D printing strategy, sintering temperature range, and preparation of hydroxyapatite scaffolds. To complete the study, in vitro cytotoxicity tests using animal and human cell models were conducted. The calcium-deficient hydroxyapatite (Ca/P ∼ 1.54) used in preparation of filament exhibited after sintering differences in crystalochemical phases in different rations, comparing to stoichiometric hydroxyapatite (Ca/P ≅ 1.67). The FFF process successfully produced scaffold macropores suitable for tissue vascularization (∼380 µm or smaller). Optimal sintering temperature for cell proliferation was identified at 1300 °C, especially effective for used investigated calcium-deficient hydroxyapatite. Cytotoxicity assessment with murine and human fibroblastic cells demonstrated differing behaviour, emphasizing the need for careful material property modifications for practical scaffold utilization.

Process‐property relationship in polylactic acid composites reinforced by iron microparticles and 3D printed by fused filament fabrication

AbstractPolylactic acid (PLA) is the most widely used material in the fused filament fabrication (FFF) technique, which is a biocompatible thermoplastic. However, PLA's usefulness is limited by its narrow processing window and relatively low mechanical properties. Therefore, PLA composites have been developed to enhance its properties for FFF printing. A key challenge in producing composite parts via this method is to find the correlation between the mechanical properties of the parts and the process parameters. This knowledge is essential for optimizing the printing process to achieve the desired mechanical properties for composite parts industries such as aerospace, automotive, and medical, where high‐performance composite materials are crucial. The ability to control and predict the mechanical properties of FFF‐printed composite parts is critical for their successful integration into these industries. In this study, the effect of nozzle temperature (NT), printing speed (PS), and nominal porosity (POR) on the impact strength and specific impact strength of PLA/iron composites was examined using FFF. Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to optimize the experimental design. The results revealed that POR had the most significant effect on the impact resistance data, while NT had the least effect. Reducing the POR led to improved impact resistance in the samples. Multi‐objective optimization results showed that the lowest NT (190°C), the lowest POR (30%), and a PS of 50 mm/s were the optimal conditions for multiple objectives. RSM was also utilized to develop mathematical models of impact properties, focusing on varying NT, POR, and PS, which can be used to predict desired impact properties.Highlights Nominal porosity has the most influence on the impact strength of PLA/iron composites. Optimum values were temperature of 190°C, nominal porosity of 30%, and speed of 50 mm/s. RSM was effective in enhancing the mechanical properties of composite materials. RSM models provide a predictive tool for future FFF‐printed composite parts. Maximum impact strength of 4.44 kJ/m2 was achieved.

The Impact of Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) Printing Profiles on 17‐4 PH Green and Sintered Parts

AbstractThe aim of this research is to characterize parts from innovative hybrid printing method for obtaining dense metal components using affordable fused filament fabrication (FFF). The introduction of Desktop Metal technology in 2015 really attracts an increase in industrial interest in the FFF printing of highly metal‐filled filament. Even though FFF is a well‐known process, there are not many studies on how to optimize the printing parameters for these feedstocks.The effects of the printing setting on producing high‐quality green parts and enhancing the mechanical properties of the finished 17‐4 PH metallic parts are investigated in this work. The influence of four printing profiles provided by a BASF plugin for Ultimaker Cura slicing software, obtained by combining different printing parameters is investigated.The ASTM E8 tensile test is used to determine the mechanical characteristics of the finished metal components. To identify differences in morphology, optical and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observations are made on both sections of green and sintered samples. The effect of printing parameters on shrinkage and density are also taken into consideration.The findings demonstrate the importance of optimizing the printing of the green parts in order to produce full metal components that are both strong and dense.

Fused Filament Fabrication Three-Dimensional Printing: Assessing the Influence of Geometric Complexity and Process Parameters on Energy and the Environment

Fused filament fabrication (FFF) 3D printing has been recently adopted in various industries and production processes. Three-dimensional printing (3DP) has gained significant popularity and is being adopted in schools, universities, and fabrication labs, as well as in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education curricula. The aim of this study is to evaluate the energy consumption and environmental impacts of multiple parts with different complexity levels based on various process parameters through FFF printing. This paper focuses on three material filaments: polylactic acid (PLA), tough PLA (T-PLA), and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). The influence of geometric complexity, layer height, density, infill pattern, speed, and temperature on energy and the environment will be analyzed through a life-cycle assessment approach. Moreover, this study provides a set of guidelines for 3DP users in education for the energy-efficient and sustainable use of 3D printers. Our results reveal that for the proposed geometries, an energy increase of 8% is recorded for PLA when transitioning from the simple geometry to the very complex one. However, for ABS and T-PLA, no change in energy values due to geometric change is observed. Layer height is found to be the most influential parameter on energy consumption, with an increase of 59%, 54%, and 61% for PLA, ABS, and T-PLA, respectively. Printing temperature, on the other hand, is found to be the least influential parameter on energy and the environment. Furthermore, PLA is found to be the most environmentally friendly material, followed by ABS and T-PLA in terms of climate change, human toxicity, and cumulative energy demand impact categories. However, for the ozone depletion category, ABS contributes the most to environmental damage compared to T-PLA. The results suggest that PLA can be used for visual and prototype models, whereas ABS and T-PLA serve as good candidates for complex end-use applications and functional parts. The presented guidelines will assist 3DP users in the adequate and optimal use of 3DP technology in order to achieve resource efficiency, energy savings, and environmental sustainability.

Electric field-assisted fused filament fabrication process for robust additive manufacturing in unconventional orientations

Fused filament fabrication (FFF) is one of the most widely used thermoplastic additive manufacturing techniques that have great potential for numerous applications. However, for more advanced additive manufacturing with unusual environments, such as in-space manufacturing, conventional FFF is limited by the lack of gravity and inconsistent nozzle standoff distance. Varying nozzle standoff distances in the FFF process typically result in problems with the adhesion of extruded material as well as dimensional and geometrical errors in the extruded material, which leads to a long setup time and a high failure rate. Conventional FFF typically needs continuous monitoring or human intervention to ensure successful printing. This paper innovated an electric field-assisted FFF (E-FFF) process for robust fabricating parts in unconventional printing orientations while eliminating the need for constant supervision and human intervention to maintain and adjust the z-height calibration. The E-FFF system integrates a high-voltage power supply with a conventional FFF printer to produce an electrostatic force between the nozzle and the build plate. The generated electrostatic force is capable of attracting the extruded molten polymer material towards the build plate even at larger z-heights of up to 1200 μm under unconventional printing orientations. The effectiveness of the E-FFF process was demonstrated by comparing the E-FFF and conventional FFF processes. The results affirm the assistance of gravitational force on conventional FFF processes in the normal printing orientation. The novel E-FFF process with robust printing capabilities in the vertical and reverse orientations enables much larger nozzle standoff distances than that of the conventional FFF process, which exhibits great potential to be used in the micro/zero-gravity environment in the future. A two-dimensional finite element simulation model is used to understand the effects of applied voltage on the E-FFF process and calculate the electric field intensity. The simulation results showed that the electric field intensity of E = 1.27 × 106 V/m is sufficient for successful printing in all demonstrated printing orientations.

Orientable Dense Cyclic Infill for Anisotropic Appearance Fabrication

We present a method to 3D print surfaces exhibiting a prescribed varying field of anisotropic appearance using only standard fused filament fabrication printers. This enables the fabrication of patterns triggering reflections similar to that of brushed metal with direct control over the directionality of the reflections. Our key insight, on which we ground the method, is that the direction of the deposition paths leads to a certain degree of surface roughness, which yields a visual anisotropic appearance. Therefore, generating dense cyclic infills aligned with a line field allows us to grade the anisotropic appearance of the printed surface. To achieve this, we introduce a highly parallelizable algorithm for optimizing oriented, cyclic paths. Our algorithm outperforms existing approaches regarding efficiency, robustness, and result quality. We demonstrate the effectiveness of our technique in conveying an anisotropic appearance on several challenging test cases, ranging from patterns to photographs reinterpreted as anisotropic appearances.

A comparison between large-format 3D printing and conventional fused filament fabrication

ABSTRACT This paper reports the results of a comparison study between objects printed with a large-format 3D printing machine and a conventional fused filament fabrication (FFF) printer. A pellet extrusion head was developed and integrated into a cartesian 3D printing platform, obtaining a large-format 3D printing system based on the FFF technique. This integration allows to use polymerised pellets as raw material and printing with a larger stroke through bigger nozzles than conventional FFF nozzles. In addition, this integration enables printing pieces with considerably thicker layers compared with a traditional FFF process. One of the concerns addressed in this study was the mechanical performance of the objects obtained by the large-format 3D printer. Hence, a comparison of the surface’s roughness, maximal tensile stress, tensile modulus, and deformation were made between pieces printed in a large-format 3D printer and a conventional FFF printer. The results reveal that large-format 3D printing has important benefits, such as reducing the time required to print objects, improving the mechanical performance of the printed pieces, and enabling the use of composite materials in additive manufacturing. However, some drawbacks are noticed, e.g. the low resolution and poor surface finish obtained.

Trueness of cone-beam computed tomography-derived skull models fabricated by different technology-based three-dimensional printers

BackgroundThree-dimensional (3D) printing is a novel innovation in the field of craniomaxillofacial surgery, however, a lack of evidence exists related to the comparison of the trueness of skull models fabricated using different technology-based printers belonging to different cost segments.MethodsA study was performed to investigate the trueness of cone-beam computed tomography-derived skull models fabricated using different technology based on low-, medium-, and high-cost 3D printers. Following the segmentation of a patient’s skull, the model was printed by: (i) a low-cost fused filament fabrication printer; (ii) a medium-cost stereolithography printer; and (iii) a high-cost material jetting printer. The fabricated models were later scanned by industrial computed tomography and superimposed onto the original reference virtual model by applying surface-based registration. A part comparison color-coded analysis was conducted for assessing the difference between the reference and scanned models. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with Bonferroni correction was applied for statistical analysis.ResultsThe model printed with the low-cost fused filament fabrication printer showed the highest mean absolute error (1.33pm 0.24 text{mm}), whereas both medium-cost stereolithography-based and the high-cost material jetting models had an overall similar dimensional error of 0.07pm 0.03 text{mm} and 0.07pm 0.01 text{mm}, respectively. Overall, the models printed with medium- and high-cost printers showed a significantly (p<0.01) lower error compared to the low-cost printer.ConclusionsBoth stereolithography and material jetting based printers, belonging to the medium- and high-cost market segment, were able to replicate the skeletal anatomy with optimal trueness, which might be suitable for patient-specific treatment planning tasks in craniomaxillofacial surgery. In contrast, the low-cost fused filament fabrication printer could serve as a cost-effective alternative for anatomical education, and/or patient communication.

A review of fused filament fabrication of continuous natural fiber reinforced thermoplastic composites: Techniques and materials

AbstractThe combination of continuous natural fiber and fused filament fabrication (FFF) 3D printing enables the manufacturing of low carbon emitting, environment friendly, lightweight, and high strength biomass composites with designated geometry characteristics. In current literature, reviews associated with continuous fiber 3D printing primarily cover synthetic fibers, such as carbon fiber, Kevlar, and glass fiber. Very few pieces of literature on the FFF printing of continuous natural fibers are available. Techniques/methodologies for incorporating continuous natural fiber reinforcements in FFF is an emerging field of research. A comprehensive review and discussion on current progress and the future prospects of continuous natural fiber 3D printing would be beneficial to its development. This article summarizes the current research status of continuous natural fiber 3D printing, including information on printing techniques, materials, and the influence of printing parameters on composite properties, so as to provide reference for the future development of FFF technology using continuous natural fiber and thermoplastic composites.

A pilot study of occupational exposure to ultrafine particles during 3D printing in research laboratories.

3D printing is increasingly present in research environments, and could pose health risks to users due to air pollution and particulate emissions. We evaluated the nanoparticulate emissions of two different 3D printers, utilizing either fused filament fabrication with polylactic acid, or stereolithography (SLA) with light curing resin. Nanoparticulate emissions were evaluated in two different research environments, both by environmental measurements in the laboratory and by personal sampling. The SLA printer had higher nanoparticulate emissions, with an average concentration of 4,091 parts/cm3, versus 2,203 particles/cm3 for the fused filament fabrication printer. The collected particulate matter had variable morphology and elemental composition with a preponderance of carbon, sulfur and oxygen, the main byproducts. Our study implies that when considering the health risks of particulate emissions from 3D printing in research laboratories, attention should be given to the materials used and the type of 3D printer.

Optimization of Process Parameters of Fused Filament Fabrication of Polylactic Acid Composites Reinforced by Aluminum Using Taguchi Approach

The benefits of the fused filament fabrication (FFF) method, including its simplicity, affordability, and accessibility, have made it the most commonly used additive manufacturing technique. Polylactic acid (PLA) is the most widely used material in FFF, but its use has been limited by low mechanical properties and a small processing window. To address this, PLA composites are used to improve its properties. Correlating mechanical properties with process parameters is crucial for producing high-quality composite parts. This study investigated the effects of material and process parameters on mechanical properties, such as tensile strength and elongation-at-break, using a customized Delta Rostock FFF printer. Two types of filaments were used, pure PLA and PLA/Aluminum composites. Printing speed (10, 20, and 30 mm/s) and raster angle (0/90, −45/45, and −30/60) were selected as process input parameters. The Taguchi method was used for the experiment design, and signal-to-noise ratio analysis was used for statistical optimization. The optimal values for achieving maximum tensile strength of 61.85 MPa and maximum elongation-at-break of 17.7% were determined. Furthermore, the signal-to-noise ratio analysis indicated that the filament type had the greatest influence on the tensile strength, whereas printing speed had the greatest impact on the elongation-at-break.

Development of MATLAB code for tool path data extraction from the G code of the fused filament fabrication (FFF) parts

The area of application of Fused filament fabrication (FFF) printing is regularly expanding, and the need for simulation of the geometry and mechanical properties to reduce the experimentation time and cost is a prime objective. In FFF printing, the input CAD model is converted into an STL file and then sliced with some software in a combination of layers, and accordingly, a tool path is generated, guiding the 3D printer to print. Thus, the printed part is not the same as the solid CAD model, but it is a layered solid part with various tool path settings or slicing parameters. This difference between the solid part and the layered replica part can cause errors in the calculations of mechanical properties. All the information related to layers, infill percentage, infill pattern, walls, etc, are stored in the form of various G or M codes in a G code file. The part orientation can also be visualized with the G code file. This G code file is the soft raw material for the FFF printer to execute the printing process. The correct reading and interpretation of the G code file are very essential to understand the 3D printing process from the core. The G code file can be used for multiple applications if the data is correctly extracted from it. This can be used to model the sliced or layered solid parts or to understand the extruder motions. In this work, a MATLAB code is generated to extract the data from the G code file and get the extrusion pattern with various infill patterns and percentages. The code was tested with multiple G code flavors, available in Cura and Slic3r software, and found suitable for all. The extracted data can be used further to model the sliced or layered solid model.

Fused Filament Fabrication and Computer Numerical Control Milling in Cultural Heritage Conservation.

This paper reports a comparison between the advantages and disadvantages of fused filament fabrication (FFF) and computer numerical control (CNC) milling, when applied to a specific case of conservation of cultural heritage: the reproduction of four missing columns of a 17th-century tabernacle. To make the replica prototypes, European pine wood (the original material) was used for CNC milling, while polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG) was used for FFF printing. Neat materials were chemically and structurally characterized (FTIR, XRD, DSC, contact angle measurement, colorimetry, and bending tests) before and after artificial aging, in order to study their durability. The comparison showed that although both materials are subject to a decrease in crystallinity (an increase in amorphous bands in XRD diffractograms) and mechanical performance with aging, these characteristics are less evident in PETG (E = 1.13 ± 0.01 GPa and σ = 60.20 ± 2.11 MPa after aging), which retains water repellent (ca = 95.96 ± 5.56°) and colorimetric (∆E = 2.6) properties. Furthermore, the increase in flexural strain (%) in pine wood, from 3.71 ± 0.03% to 4.11 ± 0.02%, makes it not suitable for purpose. Both techniques were then used to produce the same column, showing that for this specific application CNC milling is quicker than FFF, but, at the same time, it is also much more expensive and produces a huge amount of waste material compared to FFF printing. Based on these results, it was assessed that FFF is more suitable for the replication of the specific column. For this reason, only the 3D-printed PETG column was used for the subsequent conservative restoration.