Fused Filament Fabrication 3D Research Articles

Structural analysis of small-scale 3D printed composite tidal turbine blades

The existing research literature lacks comprehensive investigations into assessing the structural performance of marine renewable energy conversion devices, particularly 3D printed turbine blades, which often rely solely on computational modelling without experimental validation methods and/or established mechanical characterization techniques. This leads to significant uncertainty regarding the performance of 3D printed turbine blades manufactured by additive manufacturing technology. This study aims to fill this gap by proposing a procedure for evaluating the structural integrity of commercial small-scale tidal turbine blade (5 KW) manufactured using fused filament fabrication 3D printing with a linear infill pattern. This is achieved by developing a combined experimental, hydrodynamic, and finite element approach with the view to inspect the micro-mechanical properties of representative volume elements of 3D printed microstructures using homogenization technique. The results of mechanical testing and hydrodynamic modelling are used to create a finite element model of the 3D printed blade, allowing for stress and failure analysis. Findings indicate that while integrating 3D printed materials into blade design via 3D printing technology is feasible, the choice of materials is limited to high stiffness composite filaments. Finally, experimental validation of numerical results, particularly full field strain distribution maps obtained by digital image correlation technique for flexural testing and laboratory-scale 3D printed blade, confirms the accuracy of the finite element results. Finite element-based homogenization techniques provide valuable insights into potential failure modes in 3D printed tidal turbine blades. However, the expedited calculation of orthotropic properties through finite element analysis proves to be a faster mechanical characterization method compared to experimental approaches. The proposed methodology in this study facilitates quicker iterative design of 3D printed blades, thereby reducing the need for repeated experiments and ultimately lowering manufacturing costs.

On the optimized fused filament fabrication of polylactic acid using multiresponse central composite design and desirability function algorithm

Efficient optimization of polymeric materials in fused filament fabrication 3D printing (FFF 3DP) is crucial for productivity, cost reduction, resource conservation, consistency, and enhanced part performance. This study employed a multiresponse central composite design of experiments (CCD-DOE) with the desirability function algorithm (DFA) to optimize printing settings on polylactic acid (PLA) using a commercial FFF 3D printer. The goal was to identify optimal parameters for faster build time and reduced material usage in PLA part fabrication. The fabrication process involved computer-aided design and modeling of standard PLA dogbone specimens, meeting ASTM-D638 Type 1 tensile test standards. These specimens were then 3D printed using Ultimaker Green RAL 6018 PLA filament and a 2+ model printer set at varying print parameters. Reduced second-order polynomial models for printing time and PLA weight were generated using stepwise regression, eliminating noninfluential parameters. The models revealed that higher layer thickness, increased print speed, and lower infill density resulted in faster printing times, while lower infill density and higher layer thickness led to lighter PLA prints. DFA analysis determined the optimal settings as a layer thickness of 0.26–0.30 mm and an infill density of 35% for minimizing printing time and PLA weight. The stress–strain curves displayed characteristic high-strength, brittle behavior under tension, while tensile testing of optimized PLA parts revealed increased strength with low strain at the break when layers were aligned parallel to the applied force. These findings advance additive manufacturing and provide practical guidelines for high-quality 3D-printed PLA components. Optimizing FFF 3DP parameters enables efficient production with reduced time and material usage, enhancing cost-effectiveness and the fabrication of high-performance 3D printed products.

Six smart guidelines for high-tech manufacture on low-tech 3D printers: the case of the 3Flex

While articulated surgical instruments have enabled the proliferation of minimally invasive interventions, procedures such as laparo-endoscopic single-site surgery are waning in popularity. One potential reason for this decline is a lack of sufficiently dexterous instruments. Although multi-steerable instruments exist, these are often complex and therefore expensive assemblies. Even when 3D printing was used to simplify the design of these instruments, the requirement for high-performance 3D printers limited the reduction in manufacturing costs. To tackle this issue, we propose six guidelines for converting a 3D printed compliant medical instrument from printing on a Digital Light Processing (DLP) printer to a Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) printer. These guidelines provide a framework to manage and compensate for differences in the two processes to achieve comparable results at a reduced cost. The proposed guidelines were evaluated by assembling a FFF 3D printed prototype that shows equivalent performance to its DLP 3D printed counterpart.

Overprinting of TPU onto PA6 Substrates: The Influences of the Interfacial Area, Surface Roughness and Processing Parameters on the Adhesion between Components.

The hybridisation of injection moulding (IM) and additive manufacturing (AM) offers the opportunity to combine the high productivity of IM and the high flexibility of AM into a single process. IM parts can be overprinted through fused filament fabrication (FFF) to allow for the customisation of parts or to add new functionalities. However, the right material pair must be chosen, and processing parameters must be optimised to achieve suitable adhesion between the components. The present study dealt with the investigation of the influence of the interfacial area, substrate surface roughness and overprinting processing parameters on the adhesion between the polyamide 6 (PA6) substrate and thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) rib overprinted via FFF. PA6 substrates were produced through the IM of plates into a mould with different textures to obtain substrates with three different surface roughnesses. The ribs with varied interfacial areas were overprinted onto produced substrates using a desktop FFF 3D printer. To study the effect of overprinting processing parameters, the ribs were overprinted under varying printing and substrate temperatures and printing speeds according to the Box-Behnken design of experiments (DoE). The chemical composition and thermal properties of used materials were determined via attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). The surface properties of prepared substrates were studied via digital optical microscopy (OM), through surface roughness measurements using a confocal microscope, through contact angle (CA) measurements and through the determination of free surface energy (SFE). The adhesion between the components was determined by evaluating the tear-off strength using a universal testing machine (UTM). With an increasing interfacial area, the tear-off strength decreased, while substrate surface roughness had no statistically significant effect. Overprinting parameters influenced the tear-off strength in the order of printing speed > printing temperature > substrate temperature. High values of tear-off strength were found for the lowest printing speed, while there were no important differences found between the middle and upper values. With increasing printing and substrate temperatures, the tear-off strength increased linearly. The highest value of tear-off strength (0.84 MPa) was observed at a printing temperature, substrate temperature and printing speed of 250 °C, 80 °C and 2 mm/s, respectively.

Manufacture of thermoplastic molds by fused filament fabrication 3D printing for rapid prototyping of polyurethane foam molded products

PurposePolyurethane (PUR) foam parts are traditionally manufactured using metallic molds, an unsuitable approach for prototyping purposes. Thus, rapid tooling of disposable molds using fused filament fabrication (FFF) with polylactic acid (PLA) and glycol-modified polyethylene terephthalate (PETG) is proposed as an economical, simpler and faster solution compared to traditional metallic molds or three-dimensional (3D) printing with other difficult-to-print thermoplastics, which are prone to shrinkage and delamination (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, polypropilene-PP) or high-cost due to both material and printing equipment expenses (PEEK, polyamides or polycarbonate-PC). The purpose of this study has been to evaluate the ease of release of PUR foam on these materials in combination with release agents to facilitate the mulding/demoulding process.Design/methodology/approachPETG, PLA and hardenable polylactic acid (PLA 3D870) have been evaluated as mold materials in combination with aqueous and solvent-based release agents within a full design of experiments by three consecutive molding/demolding cycles.FindingsPLA 3D870 has shown the best demoldability. A mold expressly designed to manufacture a foam cushion has been printed and the prototyping has been successfully achieved. The demolding of the part has been easier using a solvent-based release agent, meanwhile the quality has been better when using a water-based one.Originality/valueThe combination of PLA 3D870 and FFF, along with solvent-free water-based release agents, presents a compelling low-cost and eco-friendly alternative to traditional metallic molds and other 3D printing thermoplastics. This innovative approach serves as a viable option for rapid tooling in PUR foam molding.

Development of an Extraction Hood for Efficient Chip Collection during the Finishing Process of FFF 3D Printed Parts

Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) has seen a rise in popularity for industrial and research applications due to freedom of design, comparably small costs and a short manufacturing time. However, the achievable surface quality and dimensional accuracy is still limited due to a hard to control and uncertain extrusion process. Thus, hybrid manufacturing offers the potential to improve the accuracy and roughness with subtractive manufacturing. Although several researchers have focused on recycling filament of defective prints, the recycling aspect of chips resulting from hybrid manufacturing did not receive the same attention. That is why in this work an initial step is taken for enabling an additional source for filament recycling by designing a chip collector. To optimize the capability of the system a systematic simulation-based design process is carried out. Particle trajectories obtained from high-speed video recordings were evaluated by means of particle tracking velocimetry (PTV). Subsequently two design concepts of an extraction hood were developed and analyzed using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Additionally, particle trajectories were calculated and evaluated. Based on the simulation results one flow optimized concept is chosen which offers a simulated chip extraction rate of 99.9 %.

The investigation of printing parameters effect on tensile characteristics for triply periodic minimal surface designs by Taguchi

AbstractThe advent of additive manufacturing also referred to as 3D printing, has brought about substantial changes in the industrial domain, as it possesses the capability to fabricate intricate items with enhanced cost‐efficiency and productivity. Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) is a 3D printing process that has gained significant popularity due to its versatile capabilities and cost‐effectiveness. This paper investigates the impact of the printing parameters on the tensile characteristics of Triply Periodic Minimal Surface (TPMS) manufactured using FFF 3D printing. TPMS patterns have unique geometric properties and potential applications, making them an intriguing subject of study. The behavior of three different TPMS lattices with three printing parameters is investigated. Finding the best testing settings is done with the Taguchi method, and the data is analyzed with the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test. TPMS pattern was found to be the most effective parameter with 83.78%. While the highest strength was obtained in Schwarz diamond, the highest energy absorption was observed in the Gyroid structure. The contributions of printing parameters to tensile strength are line thickness, printing speed, and layer height, respectively. As line width and printing speed increase, both energy absorption and strength increase. Therefore, 0.40 mm line width and 60 mm/s printing speed give optimum values. When considered for energy absorption, the optimum value is 0.20 mm layer height, while when considered for strength, 0.10 mm layer height is the optimum value. The findings emphasize the importance of optimizing printing parameters for desired mechanical characteristics in 3D printed components and highlight the potential of TPMS structures in various applications. This research contributes to the growing knowledge in additive manufacturing and provides insights into optimizing FFF 3D printing for improved mechanical performance.

Generalizable process monitoring for FFF 3D printing with machine vision

AbstractAdditive manufacturing has experienced a surge in popularity in both commercial and private sectors over the past decade due to the growing demand for affordable and highly customized products, which are often in direct opposition to the requirements of traditional subtractive manufacturing. Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) has emerged as the most widely-used additive manufacturing technology, despite challenges associated with achieving contour accuracy. To address this issue, the authors have developed a novel camera-based process monitoring method that enables the detection of errors in the printing process through a layer-by-layer comparison of the actual contour and the target contour obtained via G-Code processing. This method is generalizable and can be applied to different printer models with minimal hardware adjustments using off-the-shelf components. The authors have demonstrated the effectiveness of this method in automatically detecting both coarse and small contour deviations in 3D-printed parts.

Evaluation of Cytocompatibility of PEEK-Based Composites as a Function of Manufacturing Processes.

The biocompatible polymer polyetheretherketone (PEEK) is a suitable candidate to be part of potential all-polymer total joint replacements, provided its use is associated with better osseointegration, mechanical performance, and wear resistance. Seeking to meet the aforementioned requirements, respectively, we have manufactured a PEEK composite with different fillers: carbon fibers (CF), hydroxyapatite particles (HA) and graphene platelets (GNP). The mechanical outcomes of the composites with combinations of 0, 1.5, 3.0 wt% GNP, 5 and 15 wt% HA and 30% of wt% CF concentrations pointed out that one of the best filler combinations to achieve the previous objectives was 30 wt% CF, 8 wt% HA and 2 wt% of GNP. The study compares the bioactivity of human osteoblasts on this composite prepared by injection molding with that on the material manufactured by the Fused Filament Fabrication 3D additive technique. The results indicate that the surface adhesion and proliferation of human osteoblasts over time are better with the composite obtained by injection molding than that obtained by 3D printing. This result is more closely correlated with morphological parameters of the composite surface than its wettability behavior.

Tunable 3D printed composite metamaterials with negative stiffness

The paper proposes a class of tunable metamaterials that use inclined beams to achieve instability in a rigid system. Three different beam tilt angles, 25°, 45°, and 60°, are evaluated in the form of unit cells using quasi-static compression tests and numerical simulations. Snap-through behavirous are characterised by structural stiffness and buckling load. Periodic and gradient structures are assembled and analysed by arranging the unit cells in rows and columns. Size effect analyses and parametric studies are carried out on various unit-cell arrangements and different beam angles. The proposed metamaterials are manufactured through fused filament fabrication 3D printing technology with a composite material, onyx. The results from experiments, finite element analysis, and analytical models are compared and evaluated. The structural stiffness and buckling load are shown to be positively related to the inclination angle of the tilted beams. The number of rows of unit cells governs the nonlinear mechanical response (number of snap-throughs) of multiple-layered structures. By increasing the number of rows and columns of unit cells, which are less prone to manufacturing defects, the reliability and repeatability of the structural properties of periodic/gradient structures could be improved. A design plot is also provided to predict and tune the snap-through behaviour of multiple-layered structures via beam angles and unit-cell arrangements.

Analysis, classification and remediation of defects in material extrusion 3D printing

Additive manufacturing technologies (or 3D printing) have emerged as powerful tools for creating a diverse array of objects, promising a paradigm shift in production methodologies across industries. In chemistry, it allows the manufacturing of reactors with complex topology. However, the benefits of these technologies can be diminished by the use of suboptimal parameters or inferior materials, leading to defects that significantly degrade the quality and functionality of the resulting products. The formulation of effective preventive strategies remains hampered by an incomplete understanding of defect formation. Given this, our review provides a comprehensive exploration of defects that arise during the Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) — one of the most prevalent 3D printing methods. The defects are systematically classified according to several key characteristics, including size, type, mode of occurrence, and location. Each common defect is discussed in detail, describing its external manifestation, root causes, the impact on the properties of printed parts, and potential preventive measures. Our findings unveil the complex interplay between material properties, printing parameters, and cooling dynamics in the defect formation process. This classification has significant practical relevance, providing a solid basis for the development of strategies to minimize defects and improve the quality of 3D printed products. It provides valuable insights for a wide audience, including researchers investigating chemical processes and additive manufacturing technologies, 3D printing engineers, 3D printer operators, and quality assurance engineers involved in production quality control. In addition, our review points the way forward for future research in this area. There is a crucial need for the development of advanced machine learning and artificial intelligence models that can predict defect formation based on given printing parameters and material properties. Future investigations should also focus on the discovery of novel materials and refining of printing parameters to achieve superior quality of FFF 3D printed products. This is the first review on defect analysis, classification, and prevention methods in 3D printing. This review serves as a cornerstone for these future advances, promoting a deeper understanding of defect formation and prevention in additive manufacturing.<br> The bibliography includes 180 references .

Study on CNT/TPU cube under the 3D printing conditions of infill patterns and density

In this study, to develop soft pressure sensor applicable to wearable robots using stretchable polymers and conductive fillers, 3.25 wt% carbon nanotubes/thermoplastic polyurethane filament with shore 94 A were manufactured. Three infill densities (20%, 50%, and 80%) and patterns (zigzag (ZG), triangle (TR), honeycomb (HN)) were applied to print cubes via fused filament fabrication 3D printing. Most suitable infill conditions were confirmed based on the slicing images, morphologies, compressive properties, electrical properties, and electrical heating properties. For each infill pattern, ZG and TR divided the layers into lines and figures, and the layers were stacked by rotation. For HN, the same layers were stacked in a hexagonal pattern. Consequently, TR divided layer in various directions, showed the strongest compressive properties with toughness 1.99 J for of infill density 80%. Especially, the HN became tougher with increased infill density. Also, the HN laminated with the same layer showed excellent electrical properties, with results greater than 14.7 mA. The electrical heating properties confirmed that ZG and HN had the high layer density, which exhibited excellent heating characteristics. Therefore, it was confirmed that performance varies depending on the 3D printing direction, and it was confirmed that HN is suitable for manufacturing soft sensors.

Influence of printing material moisture on part adhesion in fused filament fabrication 3D printing

ABSTRACT Fused filament fabrication plays an increasingly important role in modern manufacturing. Despite this, issues like deformations caused by thermal shrinkage are still common. These process failures, called warping, can easily be avoided by ensuring sufficient adhesion of the printed part to the build surface during the manufacturing process. Nevertheless, only a few is known about the factors which have an impact on the adhesion between a part to be printed and the build surface. Although the content of moisture in the used polymer plays an important role in every established processing method, its influence on adhesion is still unknown for fused filament fabrication. This publication investigates the influence of moisture in the printing material for the examples of build surfaces made from Pertinax and borosilicate glass and printing materials such as polylactide acid, polyvinyl alcohol and polyamide. These printing materials were characterized by thermogravimetric analyses and differential scanning calorimetry. Following adhesion tests showed that the moisture content of the printing material can alter the adhesion between the printed part and the build surface up to 68%. It was also shown that there is an optimum moisture content at which maximum adhesion is reached.

Simulation of temperature profile in fused filament fabrication 3D printing method

PurposeTemperature is a critical factor in the fused filament fabrication (FFF) process, which affects the flow behavior and adhesion of the melted filament and the mechanical properties of the final object. Therefore, modeling and predicting temperature in FFF is crucial for achieving high-quality prints, repeatability, process control and failure prediction. This study aims to investigate the melt deposition and temperature profile in FFF both numerically and experimentally using different Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene single-strand specimens. The process parameters, including layer thickness, nozzle temperature and build platform temperature, were varied.Design/methodology/approachCOMSOL Multiphysics software was used to perform numerical simulations of fluid flow and heat transfer for the printed strands. The polymer melt/air interface was tracked using the coupling of continuity equation, equation of motion and the level set equation, and the heat transfer equation was used to simulate the temperature distribution in the deposited strand.FindingsThe numerical results show that increasing the nozzle temperature or layer thickness leads to an increase in temperature at points close to the nozzle, but the bed temperature is the main determinant of the overall layer temperature in low-thickness strands. The experimental temperature profile of the deposited strand was measured using an infrared (IR) thermal imager to validate the numerical results. The comparison between simulation and observed temperature at different points showed that the numerical model accurately predicts heat transfer in the three-dimensional (3D) printing of a single-strand under different conditions. Finally, a parametric analysis was performed to investigate the effect of selected parameters on the thermal history of the printed strand.Originality/valueThe numerical results show that increasing the nozzle temperature or layer thickness leads to an increase in temperature at points close to the nozzle, but the bed temperature is the main determinant of the overall layer temperature in low-thickness strands. The experimental temperature profile of the deposited strand was measured using an IR thermal imager to validate the numerical results. The comparison between simulation and observed temperature at different points showed that the numerical model accurately predicts heat transfer in the 3D printing of a single-strand under different conditions. Finally, a parametric analysis was performed to investigate the effect of selected parameters on the thermal history of the printed strand.

Effect of TiC Content on Microstructure and Wear Performance of 17-4PH Stainless Steel Composites Manufactured by Indirect Metal 3D Printing.

In order to improve the performance of 17-4PH under wear conditions (e.g., gears, etc.) and reduce the cost of metal additive manufacturing, TiC needs to be added to 17-4PH to improve its wear resistance. Micron-sized TiC-reinforced 17-4PH stainless steel composites with different contents (0-15 wt%) have been prepared by fused filament fabrication 3D printing for the first time. The effects of TiC content on the structure and properties of composites were studied by XRD, SEM, and sliding wear. The obtained results show that the microstructure of TiC-reinforced 17-4PH stainless steel composites mainly consists of austenite. With the increase in TiC content, the grain size is obviously refined, and the average grain size decreases from 65.58 μm to 19.41 μm. The relative densities of the composites are maintained above 95% with the addition of TiC. The interfaces between TiC particles and the 17-4PH matrix are metallurgical bonds. The hardness of the composites increases and then decreases with increasing TiC content, and the maximum hardness (434 HV) is obtained after adding 10 wt.% of TiC content. The wear rate of the composites was reduced from 2.191 × 10-5 mm3 /(N‧m) to 0.509 × 10-5 mm3 /(N‧m), which is a 3.3-fold increase in wear resistance. The COF value declines with the addition of TiC. The reasons for the significant improvement in the composites' performance are fine grain strengthening, solid solution strengthening, and second phase strengthening. The wear mechanisms are mainly abrasive and adhesive wear. Compared to the 10 wt% TiC composites, the 15 wt% TiC composites show limited improvement in wear resistance due to more microcracks and TiC agglomeration.

Fabrication and tunable reinforcement of net-shaped aluminum matrix composite parts via 3D printing

Advanced materials, such as metal matrix composites (MMCs), are important for innovation, national security, and addressing climate change. MMCs are used in military, aerospace, and automotive applications because of their exceptional mechanical and thermal properties, however adoption has been slow due to costly and onerous manufacturing processes. A new process using fused filament fabrication 3D printing has been developed to make net shape MMCs without tooling or machining. The process involves printing an alumina preform and then using pressure-less infiltration with a molten aluminum alloy to form the composite. Arbitrary shapes can be formed in this process—a brake lever and a flange are demonstrated—and the properties can be tuned by varying the ceramic infill geometric pattern and ceramic loading. By using 35 vol% continuous fiber reinforcement over 800 MPa strength and 140 GPa modulus are achieved for the aluminum composite, 3.4 × and 2 × the matrix aluminum properties.

Mesoscopic analysis and intra-layer progressive failure model of fused filament fabrication 3D printing GFRP

The deficiency of failure analysis methods severely hinders the civil engineering application of Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) 3D printing composites. In order to comprehensively investigate the failure process, this paper innovatively proposes the concept of continuous printing filament hypothesis based on mesoscopic analysis. This hypothesis serves to characterize the interconnection status between glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) filaments during FFF 3D printing. Building upon this hypothesis, a progressive failure model is established, which can predict the intra-layer failure process under axial quasi-static load accurately. In the failure model, both Mode-2D and Mode-3D failure criteria are employed to pinpoint intra-layer damage initiation, while damage evolution is depicted using a stiffness reduction mode based on the fracture energy criterion. Simultaneously, the fundamental orthotropic mechanical parameters are examined, and 24 variations of printing laminates are meticulously designed. The ultimate tensile strengths (UTS), encompassing both cross-stacking (2/8, 4/6, 5/5) and angle-stacking (30°, 45°, 60°), are tested and simulated using the progressive failure method established during this study. Experimental results show that the lower layers of composites exhibit stronger ultimate resistance due to their layer-by-layer characteristics. Compared to the experimental results, all the relative errors of UTS predicted by Mode-3D are less than 15%. Therefore, the accuracy and predictive capacity of the progressive failure model are affirmed by the experimental data.

Effect of input variables on the mechanical properties of additively manufactured PEEK thermoplastics

Additive manufacturing of Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) thermoplastics offer significant advantages for advanced engineering applications, e.g., in the aerospace and biomedical fields, due to its remarkable strength, resistance to high temperatures and low thermal expansion. Moreover, using Fused Filament Fabrication 3D printing for PEEK thermoplastic allows for greater design flexibility and cost-effectiveness in comparison to traditional manufacturing methods. The significance of 3D printer input variables for improving the mechanical properties of additively fabricated PEEK thermoplastics is addressed in this research. In this regard, to investigate the impact of nozzle temperature and printing speed on the mechanical properties of 3D printed PEEK thermoplastics, a design-of-experiments methodology with a full factorial design (two factors and three levels) coupled with analysis of variance was employed. The printer speed varied between 15 and 25 mm/s, while the nozzle temperature ranged from 400 to 440 °C. Tensile tests and scanning electron microscopy were used to evaluate the mechanical properties and microstructure. The results show that the mechanical strength of the PEEK samples reduced as nozzle temperature and printing speed increased. These outcomes are due to the thermal degradation and inadequate cooling time during the printing process.

High Vacuum Capable Fused Filament Fabrication 3D Printer, Part I: Low-Temperature Polymers and Early Lessons Learned

On-orbit manufacturing and assembly have become major research and development topics for government and commercial entities seeking the capability to build very large structures in space. Additive manufacturing is well suited to this paradigm since the process is highly automated, produces little material waste, and allows for a large degree of geometric freedom. This paper presents a design for a 3D printer that operates in high vacuum. The vacuum 3D printer has completed multiple thermal vacuum test campaigns, with dozens of parts printed to date using low-temperature thermoplastics. Testing of material coupons shows that samples printed in vacuum have strength properties generally within a standard deviation of samples printed at ambient pressure. The overall results from multiple successful tests of the vacuum 3D printer promote the feasibility of on-orbit additive manufacturing while exposed to the space environment. This paper is part one of a two-part series. Part I presents the results using a low-temperature hotend capable of printing hobby-grade materials and documents some initial findings and lessons learned for applying FFF in vacuum. Part II presents the results for a high-temperature hotend capable of printing engineering grade plastics that are suitable for on-orbit manufacturing. The combined results of the two papers in this series can be used to inform future on-orbit additive manufacturing applications as well as potential uses on future moon missions.

A Printing Strategy for Embedding Conductor Paths into FFF Printed Parts.

A novel approach to manufacture components with integrated conductor paths involves embedding and sintering an isotropic conductive adhesive (ICA) during fused filament fabrication (FFF). However, the molten plastic is deposited directly onto the adhesive path which causes an inhomogeneous displacement of the uncured ICA. This paper presents a 3D printing strategy to achieve a homogeneous cross-section of the conductor path. The approach involves embedding the ICA into a printed groove and sealing it with a wide extruded plastic strand. Three parameter studies are conducted to obtain a consistent cavity for uniform formation of the ICA path. Specimens made of polylactic acid (PLA) with embedded ICA paths are printed and evaluated. The optimal parameters include a groove printed with a layer height of 0.1 mm, depth of 0.4 mm, and sealed with a PLA strand of 700 µm diameter. This resulted in a conductor path with a homogeneous cross-section, measuring 660 µm ± 22 µm in width (relative standard deviation: 3.3%) and a cross-sectional area of 0.108 mm2 ± 0.008 mm2 (relative standard deviation 7.2%). This is the first study to demonstrate the successful implementation of a printing strategy for embedding conductive traces with a homogeneous cross-sectional area in FFF 3D printing.