Fused Deposition Modeling Research Articles

Implementation of a robotic framework for multi-axis supportless fused filament fabrication via volume decomposition: a practical approach

Implementation of a robotic framework for multi-axis supportless fused filament fabrication via volume decomposition: a practical approach

A Study on the Tensile Behavior of Specimens Manufactured by FDM from Recycled PETG in the Context of the Circular Economy Transition

This article presents the results of a study on the influence of 3D printing by Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) parameters on the tensile behavior of parts made from Everfil recycled Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol (rPETG). For this study, 27 rPETG tensile specimens with 100% recycled material were manufactured using an Anycubic 4 Max Pro 2.0 3D printer and by varying the printing parameters: height of the deposited layer in one pass, Lh, and filling percentage, Id. The Lh was set to 0.10, 0.15, and 0.20 mm and the Id was set to 50, 75, and 100 %. The two variable parameters, Id and Lh, influenced the tensile characteristics of the rPETG specimens: maximum breaking strength, percent elongation at break, and modulus of elasticity. The ultimate breaking strength and modulus of elasticity of the rPETG specimens were most influenced by Id, whereas the percentage elongation at break was mostly affected by Lh. The optimized FDM parameters for the fabrication of rPETG tensile specimens were found to be Lh = 0.20 mm and Id = 100%.

Innovative surface engineering of sustainable polymers: Toward green and high-performance materials

The development of sustainable polymers is critical to the progression of greener manufacturing processes, especially for the additive manufacturing technologies of fused deposition modeling (FDM). The study aims to explore potential application surface engineering techniques that enhance the performance of these sustainable polymers within the context of FDM. Various surface modification methods, such as plasma treatment, chemical etching, and UV irradiation, were utilized on biodegradable and recycled polymers, with the treatment process conducted under controlled conditions. Mechanical testing was done using a Tinius Olsen universal testing machine, with surface morphology analyzed through scanning electron microscopy. The outcome indicated that the tensile strength of polylactic acid improved by 15% with plasma treatment, while the thermal stability of recycled polyethylene terephthalate improved by 12% with chemical etching. Surface engineering developments on various techniques will be reviewed, particularly in optimizing them within FDM processes for different types of polymers. Different surface modifications will be compared here, analyzing aspects such as adhesion, endurance, and more overall performance. This comparison provides a fundamental outlook into the relationship between surface treatment and polymer performance, paving the way for optimization of FDM processes in sustaining material applications. These findings serve as further guidance toward making additive manufacturing much more sustainable and efficient through advanced surface engineering. The numerical improvement of material properties observed in the study will aid in further endeavors towards achieving sustainability and efficiency in additive manufacturing.

3D-Printed Lithium-Ion Battery Electrodes: A Brief Review of Three Key Fabrication Techniques

In recent years, 3D printing has emerged as a promising technology in energy storage, particularly for the fabrication of Li-ion battery electrodes. This innovative manufacturing method offers significant material composition and electrode structure flexibility, enabling more complex and efficient designs. While traditional Li-ion battery fabrication methods are well-established, 3D printing opens up new possibilities for enhancing battery performance by allowing for tailored geometries, efficient material usage, and integrating multifunctional components. This article examines three key 3D printing methods for fabricating Li-ion battery electrodes: (1) material extrusion (ME), which encompasses two subcategories—fused deposition modeling (FDM), also referred to as fused filament fabrication (FFF), and direct ink writing (DIW); (2) material jetting (MJ), including inkjet printing (IJP) and aerosol jet printing (AJP) methods; and (3) vat photopolymerization (VAT-P), which includes the stereolithographic apparatus (SLA) subcategory. These methods have been applied in fabricating substrates, thin-film electrodes, and electrolytes for half-cell and full-cell Li-ion batteries. This discussion focuses on their strengths, limitations, and potential advancements for energy storage applications.

Enhancing the mechanical properties of FDM 3D printed PETG parts with high pressure cold isostatic pressing

This study examined the effects of cold isostatic pressing (CIP) as a post-processing method for polyethylene terephthalate glycol-modified (PETG) parts produced by fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D printing. To analyze the mechanical properties of CIP, 3D printed specimens were subjected to CIP at pressures ranging from 250 to 1000 bar with holding times of 1 to 10 min, followed by tensile, flexural, and interlaminar shear strength tests. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses were performed for morphological and chemical property changes. The mechanical properties were generally optimal at 500–750 bar, indicating a significant improvement. SEM analysis revealed that the interlayer gaps and void areas decreased, with the porosity reduced by 4.46 times compared to the untreated samples. XRD analysis showed that the CIP treatment did not significantly alter the chemical structure of PETG and maintained its amorphous characteristics. These results suggest the potential of CIP as an effective post-processing technique that improves the mechanical properties while preserving the basic material characteristics of FDM-printed parts.

A Study of the Optimization of FDM Parameters for the Manufacture of Compression Specimens from Recycled PETG in the Context of the Transition to the Circular Economy

The current paper presents the results of a research on the optimization of Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) parameters, namely the height of the deposited layer in one pass, Lh, and the filling percentage, Id, with the purpose of manufacturing compression specimens from recycled Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol (rPETG), and thus, aiming the transition to circular economy. A total of 45 compression specimens were manufactured from rPETG on the Anycubic 4Max Pro 3D printer with variable parameters Lh = 0.10 mm, 0.15 mm, 0.20 mm, and Id = 50%, 75%, 100%. All 45 specimens were tested in compression on the Barrus White 20 kN universal testing machine. The considered variable parameters influence the Compressive Strength (CS) of the specimens, with Id being the parameter with overwhelming influence.

Compressive and Bending Properties of 3D-Printed Wood/PLA Composites with Re-Entrant Honeycomb Core

This study investigates the mechanical behavior of sandwich structures comprising a re-entrant honeycomb core structure created using wood/polylactic acid (PLA) filaments via fused deposition modeling (FDM) technology. The sandwich structures were manufactured with different face layer thicknesses (0 mm, 0.8 mm, and 1.6 mm) and various core topologies. Material characterizations included bending tests, compressive tests, and finite element analysis (FEA) to identify stress concentration areas. In-plane and out-of-plane re-entrant honeycomb core structure specimens were tested to examine the bending properties. In addition, flatwise and edgewise compressive tests were performed to investigate the structures' compressive properties. Furthermore, the modulus of elasticity for each specimen was determined using the finite element technique (FEM). The results reveal that increasing the thickness of the face layer significantly enhances the structure's resistance to bending forces. Furthermore, specimens with an in-plane orientation demonstrated better bending strength compared to those with an out-of-plane orientation due to increased material underloading. In flatwise compressive tests, specimens without a face layer exhibited the highest strength, attributed to their greater displacement. In contrast, edgewise compressive tests showed significant buckling behavior of the face sheet, the maximum stress increased proportionally with the thickness of the face layer, reaching its peak at a skin thickness of 1.6 mm. The findings are validated by ANSYS analysis, which closely mirrors the experimental results, providing insight into flexural modulus, modulus of elasticity, and stress concentration. These findings indicate that architected core structures could be efficiently utilized to improve bending/compressive characteristics and failure mechanisms, providing valuable insights into the mechanical response of sandwich structures for different industrial applications.

Amyloid Nanofilm-Induced surface mineralization of 3D-Printed Polyetheretherketone scaffolds for in situ orbital bone regeneration and repair

Orbital bone defect repair is both challenging and crucial and requires the comprehensive consideration of anatomical complexity, functional preservation, aesthetic outcomes, postoperative risks, and long-term effects. Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) is a promising orthopedic substitute material due to its cortical bone-like elastic modulus, biocompatibility, chemical stability, and natural radiolucency. However, PEEK is bioinert and lacks interfacial bioactivity, which limits its ability to promote bone growth and osseointegration. In this study, we fabricated porous PEEK scaffolds using Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) 3D printing technology. We employed a phase-transitioned lysozyme (PTL) nanofilm as the organic matrix template to construct a robust hydroxyapatite (HAp) coating both inside and outside the porous PEEK scaffold, generating HAp@PTL@PO-PEEK. The PTL nanofilm acted as a strong glue, enhancing the interfacial bonding strength between the HAp coating and PEEK. In vitro cell biology experiments revealed that HAp@PTL@PO-PEEK promoted the proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells. Furthermore, the modified scaffolds exhibited excellent osteoconductivity and osteoinductivity in the in vivo repair of rabbit orbital bone defects, promoting new bone formation and guiding new bone growth into the scaffold. Therefore, HAp@PTL@PO-PEEK scaffolds hold potential for clinical craniomaxillofacial bone regeneration and repair.

Investigation of the performance of oil-free linear compressor with magnetic resonance spring for pulse tube cryocooler

This study proposes a new type of oil-free linear compressor with a magnetic resonance spring, which uses a magnetic resonance spring to provide restoring force and adopts gas-lubricated bearings to provide support force for the piston. The frequency characteristics of the compressor, including magnetic spring stiffness, gas spring stiffness, and resonance frequency, are studied through experiments and theoretical analysis. The magnetic spring stiffness is 31403.31 N/m of the design compressor. Hooke’s law and Fourier decomposition are employed for the gas spring stiffness measuring the compression pressure gauged. Meanwhile, the gas spring stiffness is also obtained from the amplitude-frequency characteristic of the compressor by the back stepping technique with an electric parameter frequency scan. The experimental results demonstrate that the three measurement methods have good consistency in measuring the gas spring stiffness. The equivalent gas spring stiffness measured using the three methods and theoretical model are 72600.92 N/m, 71275.84 N/m, 71967.15 N/m, and 71929.25 N/m at 3 MPa charged pressure measured respectively. In addition, the refrigeration performance of the pulse tube cryocooler driven by the compressor is tested and the lowest temperature obtained in the cold end is 46.3 K under different charge pressure. Furthermore, an optimal frequency exists that enhances the refrigeration performance of the pulse tube cryocooler, and this optimal frequency remains constant regardless of changes in the charge pressure.

Strength and stiffness anisotropy of 3D-printed coarse root analogues for small-scale physical modelling

Plant root–soil mechanical interaction in the application of soil bioengineering such as tree and slope stability has been investigated by way of centrifuge modelling, utilising root analogues to replicate vegetated soils. Three-dimensional (3D) printing can be used to model complex root architecture, but the nature of the layer-upon-layer printing process may lead to printed parts of differing tensile behaviour depending on orientation and, consequently, unrealistic simulation of root mechanical reinforcement. This study aimed to assess the strength and stiffness anisotropy of straight root analogues built at varying orientations by way of three different 3D printing methods and compare the measured properties with those of real roots. The tensile strength ratios between horizontal- and vertical-printed samples were up to 3·90, 1·27 and 2·57 for fused deposition modelling (FDM), liquid-crystal display and PolyJet methods, respectively. Stiffness anisotropy was also more significant in FDM. The relatively higher anisotropy in FDM-printed samples could overestimate the strength and stiffness of most roots in a hypothetical heart-shaped root system, depending on the diameter distribution. Such a physical model may be improved by using 45° inclined PolyJet-printed rods.

3D Printing of Continuous Basalt Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Characterization of the In-Plane Mechanical Properties and Anisotropy Evaluation

Usage of continuous fibers as a reinforcement would definitely increase the mechanical properties of 3D-printed materials. The result is a continuous fiber-reinforced composite obtained by additive manufacturing that is not limited to prototyping or non-structural applications. Among the available continuous reinforcing fibers, basalt has not been extensively studied in 3D printing. This material is attractive due to its natural origin, good mechanical properties, impact strength, and high chemical and thermal resistance. In this work, a continuous basalt fiber co-extruded composite obtained by fused filament fabrication was characterized both thermally and mechanically, concerning the in-plane tensile properties. The degree of anisotropy of the material was also assessed, both qualitatively and quantitatively. The 3D-printed composite showed longitudinal properties, which were 15 times higher than the pure matrix, thus meeting structural requirements. On the other hand, transverse and shear properties were much lower than longitudinal ones, thus leading to a strongly anisotropic material. This was also confirmed by the anisotropy evaluation that was performed numerically and graphically using an innovative approach. This behavior affects the design of 3D-printed parts; thus, an optimized continuous fiber deposition is necessary for structural applications.

Transforming electronic waste into a sustainable 3D printing filaments using polylactic acid

Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) is a versatile manufacturing technique that utilizes polymer filaments as a raw material. It is appropriate process for integrating recycled biowaste and fibers as reinforcing agents alongside the polymers. This research article delves into the intricate process of fabricating filaments using powder extracted from Electronic Waste (EW), notably Printed Circuit Boards (PCB) and blended with virgin Polylactic Acid (PLA), providing a comprehensive exploration of the methodology involved. The primary pellet in this study was virgin PLA, while flexi PLA F2110 was utilized as a plasticizer. The PCB underwent shredding and grinding into powder particles ≤150 µm, which was subsequently blended with polymer pellets (1 and 3 wt.%) for the experiment. Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDAX) was utilized to determine the composition of the segregated EW. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) were performed on the EW powder to test its thermal stability and determine its capacity to survive the temperatures required for filament extrusion. The filaments were extruded using a single screw extruder with EW-PCB, and the properties of both the extruded filament and filler particles were assessed through tensile, impact and hardness testing. Thermal analysis and morphology examination of the EW-PCB filler particles confirmed their suitability for filament extrusion. The outcomes of the tensile, hardness and impact tests revealed that the composite filament, containing 3 wt.% EW-PCB, demonstrated significantly greater resistance to tensile load, a higher Young’s modulus, increased surface hardness and decreased toughness compared to the other composite filaments (0 and 1 wt.%).

Model decomposition method for minimizing the consumption of support structure for FFF

Fused filament fabrication (FFF) often requires additional support structures for manufacturing parts with overhanging areas, leading to substantial material and time wastage. Although several model decomposition techniques have been developed to tackle this issue, most focus solely on the constraint of overhang surface area. As a result, these techniques often struggle with parts that have intricate overhang characteristics, causing reduced printing surface accuracy and quality. This study introduces a precise method for detecting overhang regions and support-relevant overhang regions to improve the accuracy of overhang region identification and printing precision. Additionally, a model decomposition strategy leveraging genetic algorithm optimization is proposed to minimize the need for support structures, aiming for nearly support-free printing. Moreover, for intricate structures with a high topology where support structures are unavoidable, a novel projection support based on the distribution of periodic points in triangular form is developed to address this printing challenge. Experimental results demonstrate that the implementation of the algorithm outlined in this work on an FFF printer has achieved nearly support-free printing. Moreover, the proposed method for generating support structures has the potential to reduce material usage by 27 %.

3D printing of asymmetric buttress plate for posteromedial tibial plateau fracture using metal fused filament fabrication

PurposeThis research addresses the challenges encountered when securing bone plates in the human body to treat tibial plateau fractures, specifically focusing on preventing posterolateral fractures. The goal is to develop a 3D buttress plate that offers better stability, facilitating anatomical reduction and rigid fixation. The newly fabricated T-buttress plate enables early knee motion and reduces postoperative complications, marking a significant advancement over existing internal fixation plates.Design/methodology/approachA new buttress plate model was designed using modeling software, featuring an asymmetric curved design with three fragments. Finite element analysis was used to simulate the biomechanical performance of this new model, comparing it with symmetric flat and symmetric curved plates. Accurately predicting the biomechanical behavior of the implant posed challenges, especially during extensive simulations. Optimal parameters for the asymmetric curved plate were identified from the simulation results, and the 3D buttress plate was then fabricated using the metal fused filament fabrication (MFFF) process. This process presents challenges due to the novel nature of the asymmetric design.FindingsThe results indicate that the newly developed buttress plate exhibits superior strength and performance compared to current internal fixation plates. Biomechanical simulations show that the asymmetric curved design provides better stability and support. Moreover, the yield and ultimate tensile strengths were found to be 685 MPa and 855 MPa, respectively.Research limitations/implicationsThe study’s finite element analysis model has limitations due to its reliance on assumptions about material properties, boundary conditions and loading scenarios. It also excludes biological factors, patient variability and the bone’s heterogeneous nature, which may affect the accuracy and applicability of the results in real-life situations.Originality/valueThe development of an asymmetric curved buttress plate using MFFF is a novel innovation aimed at improving biomechanical performance and patient outcomes in orthopedic surgery, offering significant potential impact in the medical field.

Enhancing friction with additively manufactured surface‐textured polymer composites

AbstractIncreasing rubber's friction on slippery surfaces provides protection against falls; however, surface‐textured composites, despite their potential, remain susceptible to wear. To address this issue, part of our team previously patented a surface‐textured composite made from thermoplastic polymers and microfibers. This study investigates the impact of manufacturing processes and 2D filler, which are known for their hydrophobicity and large surface area. It enhances our patented composite by integrating 2D graphene nanoplatelets (GNP), hexagonal boron nitride (hBN), and fillers like styrene‐butadiene‐styrene (SEBS), and silica, while comparing the properties of composites fabricated via injection molding (IM) and fused filament fabrication (FFF). The results demonstrate that 2D fillers enhance both abrasion resistance and ice friction, while FFF‐fabricated composites consistently exhibit superior properties across all compositions. Notably, hBN‐reinforced samples exhibited hierarchical surface texturing, leading to enhanced abrasion resistance (FFF: 146.63% ± 3.39%; IM: 133.83% ± 6.8%; p = 0.036), and effective ice traction (FFF: 0.58 ± 0.04; IM: 0.54 ± 0.06; p = 0.043). These outperformed ice‐traction properties of all other FFF‐fabricated composites, including a previously patented composite (0.52 ± 0.05) as well as composites with GNP (0.53 ± 0.02), SEBS (0.42 ± 0.05), and hBN + SEBS (0.45 ± 0.02). Additionally, the patented composite produced via FFF exhibited moderate oil traction (0.121 ± 0.001), outperforming others. This study highlights the potential of FFF and 2D fillers to enhance traction and durability in composites.Highlights Surface‐textured composite introduced via additive manufacturing. Abrasion resistance and friction analysis on icy and oily conditions. Reveals the potential for new composite to improve traction and longevity. Highlights the importance of controlled fiber distribution and orientation.

3D Printing of Polyester Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering: Advancements and Challenges

AbstractPolyesters have garnered significant attention in bone tissue engineering (BTE) due to their tunable degradation rates, biocompatibility, and convenient processing. This review focuses on recent advancements and challenges in the 3D printing of polyester‐based scaffolds for BTE. Various 3D printing techniques, such as fused deposition modeling (FDM), selective laser sintering (SLS), vat photopolymerization (VP), and Wet‐spun additive manufacturing, are explored, emphasizing their ability to construct scaffolds with precise architectural control. The main challenges in 3D printed polyester scaffolds are their limited mechanical properties, lack of inherent bioactivity, and the release of acidic byproducts during biodegradation. Strategies to enhance scaffold performance, such as incorporating bioactive ceramics and growth factors, are discussed, focusing on improving osteoconductivity, osteoinductivity, and mechanical strength. Recent studies on integrating these components into polyester scaffolds and techniques to optimize scaffold porosity and biodegradability are presented. Finally, the review addresses ongoing issues, such as the difficulty of incorporating some biomolecules and bioceramics during 3D printing and improved clinical translation. This comprehensive overview aims to provide insight into the future directions and potential solutions for overcoming the limitations of 3D‐printed polyester‐based scaffolds in BTE.

Mechanical Properties of Polylactic Acid/Chitosan Composites by Fused Deposition Modeling

Mechanical Properties of Polylactic Acid/Chitosan Composites by Fused Deposition Modeling

A code-based method for carbon emission prediction of 3D printing: A case study on the fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D printing and comparison with conventional approach

This study presents a method for predicting carbon emissions from 3D printing based on the G-code and compares the emissions between FDM and injection molding (IM) processes. Traditional manufacturing methods for (polylactic acid) PLA plastic products involve IM, which require extensive equipment and metal molds to be manufactured first. This process involves repetitive heating and machining, low material utilization, high energy consumption, and high pollution. 3D printing using a gradual accumulation of materials to manufacture parts has transformed traditional manufacturing methods. However, concerns regarding the environmental impact of 3D printing have been raised in previous studies. To achieve sustainability in 3D printing, it is important to make effective adjustments by predicting the carbon emissions before printing. In this study, we propose a method for predicting carbon emissions from 3D printing by integrating processing characteristics with G-code instructions. The deviation of the model was confirmed to be between 3.86% and 5.82% through a case study of FDM 3D printing. The optimal process parameters were determined from carbon emissions predictions, resulting in carbon emissions reductions of up to 43.77%. Carbon emissions were evaluated using both the traditional IM method and FDM 3D printing for manufacturing PLA plastic products. The results showed that the carbon emissions from FDM were significantly lower than those from traditional IM in small batches or customized production. In the traditional IM method, mold manufacturing produces high carbon emissions, accounting for more than 99% of the entire process. The findings of this study offer valuable guidance to manufacturers in selecting appropriate manufacturing methods and formulating production strategies. By predicting carbon emissions in the FDM process and adjusting the parameters based on product quality requirements, significant reductions in carbon emissions can be achieved during the production of small batches or customized PLA plastic products. The carbon emission prediction method proposed in this study presents a more sustainable solution for 3D printing technology, which is crucial for advancing sustainable production and environmental protection in this field.

Investigating physical and mechanical properties of alumina/acrylonitrile butadiene styrene composites manufactured by fused deposition modeling

AbstractIn recent years, 3D printing technologies or additive manufacturing have gained significant attention in research and other industries. Among the various 3D printing techniques, fused deposition modeling has been the most widely adopted. This study focused on developing composite filaments by incorporating acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) with different volume percentages of aluminum oxide (alumina). The mechanical and physical properties of parts printed with these composite filaments were thoroughly evaluated. Tensile testing revealed that increasing the alumina content led to a reduction in tensile strength. At 20 vol%, tensile strength dropped by 72%. A heat deflection temperature (HDT) test indicated an 11% reduction in HDT, likely due to the defective composite structure. Thermogravimetric analysis test demonstrated improved thermal stability as alumina content increased. Linear shrinkage was measured in three directions, revealing anisotropic shrinkage patterns. Hardness tests were conducted, and a decrease was observed when the polymer was filled with alumina. Finally, the warpage was reduced by 91% as alumina content increased to 20%.Highlights Alumina/ABS composite filaments were manufactured and 3D‐printed very well. The void content in composite samples increases with alumina powders. The mechanical properties of 3D‐printed composite parts were decreased The alumina powder improves the warpage issues in 3D‐printed parts.

Analysis of Mechanical Properties of Components Produced by Additive Manufacturing

This paper analyses the effect of various lattice structures and lattice vectors on the mechanical properties of components made with acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) material by fused deposition modeling (FDM) technique. ABS is a well-known thermoplastic polymer that is being used in a variety of applications because of its high durability and good adaptability. A total of nine varieties of lattice structures are examined, including regular variations like hexagonal and cubic patterns and more complex ones like Gyroid patterns in this paper. Lattice vectors like 4–6 mm were considered while preparing the components. The densities of the specimens were estimated, and the specimens were tested for their flexural strength and compression strength. The results show that “Gyroid minimal surface” structures are a better choice for flexural and compression strength applications.