Fungus Batrachochytrium Dendrobatidis Research Articles

Glutathione-Mediated Metal Tolerance in an Amphibian Chytrid Fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis).

The spread of the amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, which causes the disease chytridiomycosis, has resulted in amphibian declines and extinctions worldwide. Some susceptible amphibian species can persist in contaminated habitats, prompting the hypothesis that B. dendrobatidis might be sensitive to heavy metals. We tested a panel of 12 metals to rank their toxicity to B. dendrobatidis zoospores and zoosporangia during a 6-h exposure. To better understand the mechanism for metal detoxification, we also evaluated whether glutathione is required for metal tolerance by depleting cellular glutathione before metal exposure. In addition, we investigated whether prior exposure to low metal concentrations impacted tolerance of subsequent exposure, as well as identifying metal combinations that may act synergistically. Silver (Ag), cadmium (Cd), and copper (Cu) were particularly toxic to B. dendrobatidis, with zoospore minimum lethal concentration values of 0.01 mM (Ag), 0.025 mM (Cd), and 0.5 mM (Cu). These three metals along with zinc (Zn) were also inhibitory to zoosporangia, with minimum inhibitory concentration values of 0.005 mM (Ag), 0.04 mM (Cd), 0.075 mM (Cu), and 0.04 mM (Zn). The fungicidal effects of several metals was reduced when assays were conducted in nutrient medium compared with synthetic pond water, highlighting the need for careful in vitro assay design and interpretation. Glutathione depletion strongly influenced tolerance of Cd and Ag (85% and 75% less growth, respectively) and moderately influenced tolerance of Cu, Zn, and lead (37%, 18%, and 14% less growth, respectively), indicating the importance of glutathione for metal detoxification. In general, the minimum metal concentrations that inhibited growth of B. dendrobatidis far exceeded values detected in contaminated amphibian habitats in Australia, suggesting that metal contamination alone may not have a strong protective effect against chytridiomycosis. We discuss future research directions to futher understand the potential for dissolved metals to create chytrid refuges. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;00:1-9. © 2024 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

An endogenous DNA virus in an amphibian-killing fungus associated with pathogen genotype and virulence

The global panzootic lineage (GPL) of the pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) has caused severe amphibian population declines, yet the drivers underlying the high frequency of GPL in regions of amphibian decline are unclear. Using publicly available Bd genome sequences, we identified multiple non-GPL Bd isolates that contain a circular Rep-encoding single-stranded (CRESS)-like DNA virus, which we named Bd DNA virus 1 (BdDV-1). We further sequenced and constructed genome assemblies with long read sequences to find that the virus is integrated into the nuclear genome in some strains. Attempts to cure virus-positive isolates were unsuccessful; however, phenotypic differences between naturally virus-positive and virus-negative Bd isolates suggested that BdDV-1 decreases the growth of its host invitro but increases the virulence of its host invivo. BdDV-1 is the first-described CRESS DNA mycovirus of zoosporic true fungi, with a distribution inversely associated with the emergence of the panzootic lineage.

Variation in amphibian maturation rates influences population vulnerability to disease‐induced declines

AbstractUnderstanding factors that influence population‐level responses to emerging threats in declining species is crucial for informed conservation action. In amphibian species impacted by the chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis), a pathogen that has caused amphibian declines globally, a commonly reported pattern is that more severe population declines tend to occur at higher elevations. Previous research has suggested that this pattern could be driven by reduced environmental suitability for chytrid fungus at lower elevations. However, delayed amphibian maturation, which is common in cold, high elevation populations, could also increase vulnerability to population decline. Here, we tackle this key knowledge gap, focusing on the critically endangered corroboree frogs (Pseudophryne corroboree and P. pengilleyi), which have experienced a pattern of extirpation at higher elevations, with remnant populations persisting at lower elevations. First, we quantify the age structure of two extant low elevation P. pengilleyi populations and museum specimens (both species) collected before the emergence of chytrid fungus in Australia. Male age to maturation varied from 1 to 3 years, with the extant population with higher chytrid prevalence displaying severe age structure truncation. Second, we use population simulations to calculate elasticity values under a range of scenarios with varying ages to maturation and chytrid‐associated mortality. When the population growth rate was fixed at 1, adult survival became increasingly important as age to maturation increases, particularly under a scenario of high chytrid‐associated mortality. Our simulation results indicate that delayed maturation could be a previously underappreciated factor associated with an increased risk of amphibian population decline and that earlier maturation could contribute to population persistence. Our study highlights the importance of examining variation in life history traits to better understand population‐level responses to novel threats and guide the development of appropriate conservation actions.

The Binding, Infection, and Promoted Growth of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis by the Ranavirus FV3.

Increasing reports suggest the occurrence of co-infection between Ranaviruses such as Frog Virus 3 (FV3) and the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) in various amphibian species. However, the potential direct interaction of these two pathogens has not been examined to date. In this study, we investigated whether FV3 can interact with Bd in vitro using qPCR, conventional microscopy, and immunofluorescent microscopy. Our results reveal the unexpected ability of FV3 to bind, promote aggregation, productively infect, and significantly increase Bd growth in vitro. To extend these results in vivo, we assessed the impact of FV3 on Xenopus tropicalis frogs previously infected with Bd. Consistent with in vitro results, FV3 exposure to previously Bd-infected X. tropicalis significantly increased Bd loads and decreased the host's survival.

Chytridiomycosis causes high amphibian mortality prior to the completion of metamorphosis

Amphibian populations are undergoing extensive declines globally. The fungal disease chytridiomycosis, caused by the pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), is a primary contributor to these declines. The amphibian metamorphic stages (Gosner stages 42–46) are particularly vulnerable to a range of stressors, including Bd. Despite this, studies that explicitly examine host response to chytridiomycosis throughout the metamorphic stages are lacking. We aimed to determine how Bd exposure during the larval stages impacts metamorphic development and infection progression in the endangered Fleay's barred frog (Mixophyes fleayi). We exposed M. fleayi to Bd during pro-metamorphosis (Gosner stages 35–38) and monitored infection dynamics throughout metamorphosis. We took weekly morphological measurements (weight, total body length, snout-vent-length and Gosner stage) and quantified Bd load using qPCR. While we observed minimal impact of Bd infection on animal growth and development, Bd load varied throughout ontogeny, with an infection load plateau during the tadpole stages (Gosner stages 35–41) and temporary infection clearance at Gosner stage 42. Bd load increased exponentially between Gosner stages 42 and 45, with most exposed animals becoming moribund at Gosner stage 45, prior to the completion of metamorphosis. There was variability in infection outcome of exposed individuals, with a subgroup of animals (n = 5/29) apparently clearing their infection while the majority (n = 21/29) became moribund with high infection burdens. This study demonstrates the role that metamorphic restructuring plays in shaping Bd infection dynamics and raises the concern that substantial Bd-associated mortality could be overlooked in the field due to the often cryptic nature of these latter metamorphic stages. We recommend future studies that directly examine the host immune response to Bd infection throughout metamorphosis, incorporating histological and molecular methods to elucidate the mechanisms responsible for the observed trends.

Relationship between two pathogens in an amphibian community that experienced mass mortalities.

Because host species tend to harbor multiple parasitic species, coinfection in a host is common. The chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and the viruses in the genus Ranavirus (Rv) are responsible for the decline of amphibians worldwide. Despite wide geographical co-occurrence and the serious conservation problem that coinfection with these pathogens could represent, little is known about their possible synergistic interactions and effects in a host community. We investigated the occurrence and associations between these two pathogens in an amphibian community after Rv-driven disease outbreaks were detected in four populations of the Iberian ribbed newt (Pleurodeles waltl) in northwestern Spain. We collected tissue samples from amphibians and fish and estimated Bd and Rv infection loads by qPCR. A few months after the most recent mass mortality event, Rv infection parameters at the affected sites decreased significantly or were lower than such registered at the sites where no outbreaks were recorded. Both pathogens were simultaneously present in almost all sites, but coinfection in a single host was rare. Our findings suggest that the co-occurrence of Bd and Rv does not predict adverse outcomes (e.g., enhanced susceptibility of hosts to one pathogen due to the presence or infection intensity of the other) following an outbreak. Other variables (such as species identity or site) were more important than infection with a pathogen in predicting the infection status and severity of infection with the other pathogen. Our results highlight the importance of host-specific and environmental characteristics in the dynamics of infections, coinfection patterns, and their impacts.

Body size mediates latitudinal population differences in the response to chytrid fungus infection in two amphibians

Factors behind intraspecific variation in sensitivity to pathogens remain poorly understood. We investigated how geographical origin in two North European amphibians affects tolerance to infection by the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), a generalist pathogen which has caused amphibian population declines worldwide. We exposed newly metamorphosed individuals of moor frog Rana arvalis and common toad Bufo bufo from two latitudinal regions to two different BdGPL strains. We measured survival and growth as infections may cause sub-lethal effects in fitness components even in the absence of mortality. Infection loads were higher in B. bufo than in R. arvalis, and smaller individuals had generally higher infection loads. B. bufo had high mortality in response to Bd infection, whereas there was little mortality in R. arvalis. Bd-mediated mortality was size-dependent and high-latitude individuals were smaller leading to high mortality in the northern B. bufo. Bd exposure led to sub-lethal effects in terms of reduced growth suggesting that individuals surviving the infection may have reduced fitness mediated by smaller body size. In both host species, the Swedish Bd strain caused stronger sublethal effects than the British strain. We suggest that high-latitude populations can be more vulnerable to chytrids than those from lower latitudes and discuss the possible mechanisms how body size and host geographical origin contribute to the present results.

Sequence capture identifies fastidious chytrid fungi directly from host tissue

The chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) was discovered in 1998 as the cause of chytridiomycosis, an emerging infectious disease causing mass declines in amphibian populations worldwide. The rapid population declines of the 1970s-1990s were likely caused by the spread of a highly virulent lineage belonging to the Bd-GPL clade that was introduced to naïve susceptible populations. Multiple genetically distinct and regional lineages of Bd have since been isolated and sequenced, greatly expanding the known biological diversity within this fungal pathogen. To date, most Bd research has been restricted to the limited number of samples that could be isolated using culturing techniques, potentially causing a selection bias for strains that can grow on media and missing other unculturable or fastidious strains that are also present on amphibians. We thus attempted to characterize potentially non-culturable genetic lineages of Bd from distinct amphibian taxa using sequence capture technology on DNA extracted from host tissue and swabs. We focused our efforts on host taxa from two different regions that likely harbored distinct Bd clades: (1) wild-caught leopard frogs (Rana) from North America, and (2) a Japanese Giant Salamander (Andrias japonicus) at the Smithsonian Institution’s National Zoological Park that exhibited signs of disease and tested positive for Bd using qPCR, but multiple attempts failed to isolate and culture the strain for physiological and genetic characterization. We successfully enriched for and sequenced thousands of fungal genes from both host clades, and Bd load was positively associated with number of recovered Bd sequences. Phylogenetic reconstruction placed all the Rana-derived strains in the Bd-GPL clade. In contrast, the A. japonicus strain fell within the Bd-Asia3 clade, expanding the range of this clade and generating additional genomic data to confirm its placement. The retrieved ITS locus matched public barcoding data from wild A. japonicus and Bd infections found on other amphibians in India and China, suggesting that this uncultured clade is widespread across Asia. Our study underscores the importance of recognizing and characterizing the hidden diversity of fastidious strains in order to reconstruct the spatiotemporal and evolutionary history of Bd. The success of the sequence capture approach highlights the utility of directly sequencing pathogen DNA from host tissue to characterize cryptic diversity that is missed by culture-reliant approaches.

OCCURRENCE OF PATHOGENIC CHYTRID FUNGI BATRACHOCHYTRIUM SALAMANDRIVORANS AND BATRACHOCHYTRIUM DENDROBATIDIS IN THE HONG KONG NEWT (PARAMESOTRITON HONGKONGENSIS) AND OTHER WILD AND IMPORTED AMPHIBIANS IN A SUBTROPICAL ASIAN REGION.

One of the major threats for the massive loss in global amphibian diversity is chytridiomycosis, caused by chytrid fungi Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and B. salamandrivorans (Bsal). Following its discovery in 2013, Bsal has emerged as a severe threat to the global survival of urodelans. In 2018, a study reported a high prevalence of Bsal (65.6%) in the Hong Kong newts (Paramesotriton hongkongensis, Near Threatened) of a southern China population adjacent to Hong Kong (HK). Uncertainty regarding the Bsal infection status of P. hongkongensis inhabiting HK raised deep concern over the risk of introducing Bsal from that population. We screened the skin swabs from wild individuals of P. hongkongensis, 15 sympatric amphibian species, and 16 imported amphibian species in HK for chytrids. We found that both Bsal and Bd occur in low prevalences in P. hongkongensis (Bsal 1.7%, 5/293; Bd 0.34%, 1/293), Hong Kong cascade frog, Amolops hongkongensis, family Ranidae (Bsal only, 5.26%, 1/19), and Asian common toad, Duttaphrynus melanostictus, family Bufonidae (Bsal only, 5.88%, 1/17), populations of HK, with infected individuals being asymptomatic, suggesting a potential role of these species as reservoirs of Bsal. Conversely, Bd, but not Bsal, was present on 13.2% (9/68) of imported amphibians, indicating a high chytrid introduction risk posed by international amphibian trade. Long-term surveillance of the presence of Bd and Bsal in wild and captive amphibians would be advisable, and we recommend that import and export of nonnative chytrid carriers should be prevented, especially to those regions with amphibian populations naïve to Bd and Bsal.

Conservation genomics of an endangered montane amphibian reveals low population structure, low genomic diversity and selection pressure from disease.

Wildlife diseases are a major global threat to biodiversity. Boreal toads (Anaxyrus [Bufo] boreas) are a state-endangered species in the southern Rocky Mountains of Colorado and New Mexico, and a species of concern in Wyoming, largely due to lethal skin infections caused by the amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd). We performed conservation and landscape genomic analyses using single nucleotide polymorphisms from double-digest, restriction site-associated DNA sequencing in combination with the development of the first boreal toad (and first North American toad) reference genome to investigate population structure, genomic diversity, landscape connectivity and adaptive divergence. Genomic diversity (π = 0.00034-0.00040) and effective population sizes (Ne = 8.9-38.4) were low, likely due to post-Pleistocene founder effects and Bd-related population crashes over the last three decades. Population structure was also low, likely due to formerly high connectivity among a higher density of geographically proximate populations. Boreal toad gene flow was facilitated by low precipitation, cold minimum temperatures, less tree canopy, low heat load and less urbanization. We found >8X more putatively adaptive loci related to Bd intensity than to all other environmental factors combined, and evidence for genes under selection related to immune response, heart development and regulation and skin function. These data suggest boreal toads in habitats with Bd have experienced stronger selection pressure from disease than from other, broad-scale environmental variations. These findings can be used by managers to conserve and recover the species through actions including reintroduction and supplementation of populations that have declined due to Bd.

Amphibian Hymenochirus boettgeri as an experimental model for infection studies with the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis

ABSTRACT Model organisms are crucial in research as they can provide key insights applicable to other species. This study proposes the use of the amphibian species Hymenochirus boettgeri, widely available through the aquarium trade, as a model organism for the study of chytridiomycosis, a disease caused by the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and linked to amphibian decline and extinction globally. Currently, no model organisms are used in the study of chytridiomycosis, particularly because of the lack of availability and nonstandardized methods. Thus, laboratories around the world use wild local species to conduct Bd infection experiments, which prevents comparisons between studies and reduces reproducibility. Here, we performed a series of Bd infection assays that showed that H. boettgeri has a dose- and genotype-dependent response, can generalize previous findings on virulence estimates in other species, and can generate reproducible results in replicated experimental conditions. We also provided valuable information regarding H. boettgeri husbandry, including care, housing, reproduction, and heat treatment to eliminate previous Bd infections. Together, our results indicate that H. boettgeri is a powerful and low-ecological-impact system for studying Bd pathogenicity and virulence.

Predominant prevalence of Ranavirus in southern Brazil, a region with widespread occurrence of the amphibian chytrid

AbstractEmerging infectious diseases are a major cause of amphibian declines worldwide. Two of these diseases are amphibian chytridiomycosis caused by the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and a viral disease caused by different ranaviruses (Rv). Whereas Bd is known to be widespread in Brazil, Rv was only recently detected in natural habitats. We therefore investigated the co‐occurrence of Bd and Rv in wild tadpoles in the southern Brazilian Atlantic Forest from 21 ponds. Because infection by Bd might cause immune suppression in the host, we hypothesized that tadpoles infected with Bd would be more prone to infection with Rv than Bd‐free individuals, hence presenting higher Rv loads. Surprisingly, co‐infection was rare (less than 6% of the sampled specimens), and we did not find evidence that Bd would facilitate Rv infection. On the other hand, we detected Rv in 38% of tadpoles (125 out of 324), representing twice the prevalence of Bd in the same populations. We tested the influence of biotic and abiotic factors on infection by each pathogen on tadpoles, and we detected a positive relationship between forest cover and infection by Rv, whereas no relationship was found for Bd infection. Based on the putatively low rate of co‐infection and high prevalence of Rv in wild anuran populations, we advocate for the inclusion of Rv screening and monitoring in addition to Bd in conservation‐oriented amphibian surveys. Only surveying both diseases will provide a complete picture of amphibian disease‐related declines.

Metabolites of Xenorhabdus bacteria are potent candidates for mitigating amphibian chytridiomycosis

Chytridiomycosis, caused by the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), has caused extreme losses in amphibian biodiversity. Finding bacteria that produce metabolites with antifungal properties may turn out to be invaluable in the fight against this devastating disease. The entomopathogenic bacteria, Xenorhabdus szentirmaii and X. budapestensis produce secondary metabolites that are effective against a wide range of fungal plant pathogens. To assess whether they may also be effective against Bd, we extracted cell-free culture media (CFCM) from liquid cultures of X. szentirmaii and X. budapestensis and tested their ability to inhibit Bd growth in vitro. As a second step, using juvenile common toads (Bufo bufo) experimentally infected with Bd we also tested the in vivo antifungal efficacy of X. szentirmaii CFCM diluted to 2 and 10% (v/v), while also assessing possible malign side effects on amphibians. Results of the in vitro experiment documented highly effective growth inhibition by CFCMs of both Xenorhabdus species. The in vivo experiment showed that treatment with CFCM of X. szentirmaii applied at a dilution of 10% resulted in infection intensities reduced by ca. 73% compared to controls and to juvenile toads treated with CFCM applied at a dilution of 2%. At the same time, we detected no negative side effects of treatment with CFCM on toad survival and development. Our results clearly support the idea that metabolites of X. szentirmaii, and perhaps of several other Xenorhabdus species as well, may prove highly useful for the treatment of Bd infected amphibians.

An invasive pathogen drives directional niche contractions in amphibians.

Global change is causing an unprecedented restructuring of ecosystems, with the spread of invasive species being a key driver. While population declines of native species due to invasives are well documented, much less is known about whether new biotic interactions reshape niches of native species. Here we quantify geographic range and realized-niche contractions in Australian frog species following the introduction of amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, a pathogen responsible for catastrophic amphibian declines worldwide. We show that chytrid-impacted species experienced proportionately greater contractions in niche breadth than geographic distribution following chytrid emergence. Furthermore, niche contractions were directional, with contemporary distributions of chytrid-impacted species characterized by higher temperatures, lower diurnal temperature range, higher precipitation and lower elevations. Areas with these conditions may enable host persistence with chytrid through lower pathogenicity of the fungus and/or greater demographic resilience. Nevertheless, contraction to a narrower subset of environmental conditions could increase host vulnerability to other threatening processes and should be considered in assessments of extinction risk and during conservation planning. More broadly, our results emphasize that biotic interactions can strongly shape species realized niches and that large-scale niche contractions due to new species interactions-particularly emerging pathogens-could be widespread.

Successful eradication of invasive American bullfrogs leads to coextirpation of emerging pathogens

AbstractInterventions of the host–pathogen dynamics provide strong tests of relationships, yet they are still rarely applied across multiple populations. After American bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana) invaded a wildlife refuge where federally threatened Chiricahua leopard frogs (R. chiricahuensis) were reintroduced 12 years prior, managers launched a landscape‐scale eradication effort to help ensure continued recovery of the native species. We used a before‐after‐control‐impact design and environmental DNA sampling of 19 eradication sites and 18 control sites between fall 2016 and winter 2020–2021 to measure community‐level responses to bullfrog eradication, including for two pathogens. Dynamic occupancy models revealed successful eradication from 94% of treatment sites. Native amphibians did not respond to bullfrog eradication, but the pathogens amphibian chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) and ranaviruses were coextirpated with bullfrogs. Our spatially replicated experimental approach provides strong evidence that management of invasive species can simultaneously reduce predation and disease risk for imperiled species.

Pathogenic selection promotes adaptive immune variations against serious bottlenecks in early invasions of bullfrogs

Adaptive genetic variations are key for understanding evolutionary processes influencing invasions. However, we have limited knowledge on how adaptive genetic diversity in invasive species responds to new pathogenic environments. Here, we compared variations in immune major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class-II β gene and neutral loci in relation to pathogenic chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, Bd) infection across invasive and native populations of American bullfrog between China and United States (US). Chinese invasive populations show a 60% reduction in neutral cytb variations relative to US native populations, and there were similar MHC variation and functional diversity between them. One MHC allele private to China was under recent positive selection and associated with decreased Bd infection, partly explaining the lower Bd prevalence for Chinese populations than for native US populations. These results suggest that pathogen-mediated selection favors adaptive MHC variations and functional diversity maintenance against serious bottlenecks during the early invasions (within 15 generations) of bullfrogs.

Divergent allele advantage in the MHC and amphibian emerging infectious disease.

Genetic variation in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) may be associated with resistance to the amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd). The pathogen originated in Asia, then spread worldwide, causing amphibian population declines and species extinctions. We compared the expressed MHC IIβ1 alleles of a Bd-resistant species, Bufo gargarizans, from South Korea with those of a Bd-susceptible Australasian species, Litoria caerulea. We found at least six expressed MHC IIβ1 loci in each of the two species. Amino acid diversity encoded by these MHC alleles was similar between species, but the genetic distance of those alleles known for potential broader pathogen-derived peptide binding was greater in the Bd-resistant species. In addition, we found a potentially rare allele in one resistant individual from the Bd-susceptible species. Deep next-generation sequencing recovered approximately triple the genetic resolution accessible from traditional cloning-based genotyping. Targeting the full MHC IIβ1 enables us to better understand how host MHC may adapt to emerging infectious diseases.

Conserved Evolution of MHC Supertypes among Japanese Frogs Suggests Selection for Bd Resistance.

The chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) is a major threat to amphibians, yet there are no reports of major disease impacts in East Asian frogs. Genetic variation of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) has been associated with resistance to Bd in frogs from East Asia and worldwide. Using transcriptomic data collated from 11 Japanese frog species (one individual per species), we isolated MHC class I and IIb sequences and validated using molecular cloning. We then compared MHC from Japanese frogs and other species worldwide, with varying Bd susceptibility. Supertyping analysis, which groups MHC alleles based on physicochemical properties of peptide binding sites, identified that all examined East Asian frogs contained at least one MHC-IIb allele belonging to supertype ST-1. This indicates that, despite the large divergence times between some Japanese frogs (up to 145 million years), particular functional properties in the peptide binding sites of MHC-II are conserved among East Asian frogs. Furthermore, preliminary analysis using NetMHCIIpan-4.0, which predicts potential Bd-peptide binding ability, suggests that MHC-IIb ST-1 and ST-2 have higher overall peptide binding ability than other supertypes, irrespective of whether the peptides are derived from Bd, other fungi, or bacteria. Our findings suggest that MHC-IIb among East Asian frogs may have co-evolved under the same selective pressure. Given that Bd originated in this region, it may be a major driver of MHC evolution in East Asian frogs.

Report on the First Global Amphibian and Reptile Disease (GARD) Conference 2022

The first Global Amphibian and Reptile Disease Conference took place 4–10 August 2022 in Knoxville, Tennessee, USA. More than 230 professionals from 25 countries on 6 continents discussed the most important pathogens in amphibians and reptiles in a combined in-person and virtual conference that included 8 keynotes, 5 focal talks, 105 oral presentations, and 31 poster presentations as well as 6 workshops and 4 field trips. In total, over 15 pathogens were discussed. The largest number of talks were on chytrid fungi (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans) in amphibians, ranaviruses in amphibians and reptiles, the snake fungus Ophidiomyces ophidiicola, and the emerging pentastomid Raillietiella orientalis.

Limited impact of chytridiomycosis on juvenile frogs in a recovered species

The amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) has caused catastrophic frog declines on several continents, but disease outcome is mediated by a number of factors. Host life stage is an important consideration and many studies have highlighted the vulnerability of recently metamorphosed or juvenile frogs compared to adults. The majority of these studies have taken place in a laboratory setting, and there is a general paucity of longitudinal field studies investigating the influence of life stage on disease outcome. In this study, we assessed the effect of endemic Bd on juvenile Mixophyes fleayi (Fleay’s barred frog) in subtropical eastern Australian rainforest. Using photographic mark-recapture, we made 386 captures of 116 individuals and investigated the effect of Bd infection intensity on the apparent mortality rates of frogs using a multievent model correcting for infection state misclassification. We found that neither Bd infection status nor infection intensity predicted mortality in juvenile frogs, counter to the expectation that early life stages are more vulnerable to disease, despite average high infection prevalence (0.35, 95% HDPI [0.14, 0.52]). Additionally, we found that observed infection prevalence and intensity were somewhat lower for juveniles than adults. Our results indicate that in this Bd-recovered species, the realized impacts of chytridiomycosis on juveniles were apparently low, likely resulting in high recruitment contributing to population stability. We highlight the importance of investigating factors relating to disease outcome in a field setting and make recommendations for future studies.