Soil Functions Research Articles

Effects of Eucalypt Monoculture Plantations on Soil Invertebrate Communities: A Meta‐Analysis

ABSTRACTEucalypt monoculture plantations can adversely impact soil properties. However, a thorough assessment of their effects on soil invertebrate communities is lacking, impeding our ability to acquire a deeper understanding about the potential impacts of these intensively managed plantations on soil functioning. To quantify the effects of eucalypt plantations on soil invertebrate communities, and to identify the main moderators driving these effects, we performed a meta‐analysis of studies reporting the effects of eucalypt monoculture plantations in comparison with other land use types involving different potential levels of disturbance to the soil matrix (native forests, other forestry plantations, croplands, grasslands, integrated crop‐livestock‐forestry, and invasive copses). We addressed these effects on the density (26 studies contributing 143 comparisons) and diversity (14 studies contributing 168 comparisons) of soil invertebrates. Density was lower in eucalypt plantations than in other forestry plantations, but higher than in grasslands and integrated crop‐livestock‐forestry. Diversity was lower in eucalypt plantations compared to native forests, yet higher when compared with other forestry plantations. When compared with other forestry plantations, the effects of eucalypt plantations on soil invertebrates depended on the type of other forestry plantation, the mean annual temperature, and the annual precipitation. Accounting for the diverse effects of eucalypt plantations relative to other land uses and climatic factors, along with the integration of data on soil physico‐chemical properties and different management practices, can contribute to a better understanding of how changes in land cover impact soil invertebrates and help managers to make informed decisions about the establishment of eucalypt plantations.

Effects of Microplastic Pollution on Microbial Activity and Carbon Metabolism Function in Soil

Clarifying the ecological effects of microplastics （MPs） in soil is a frontier problem in environmental science research. A 60-d microcosmic culture experiment was conducted using soil with three relative abundances （2%, 5%, and 10%, MPs/soil）, of traditional MPs polystyrene （PS） and biodegradable MPs polylactic acid （PLA）. Additionally, the changes in microbial activity and carbon metabolism function in the soil after cultivation were analyzed. The results showed that： After cultivation with MPs, the soil pH decreased and the content of dissolved organic carbon （DOC） in the soil significantly increased. The addition of MPs significantly reduced the activities of catalase and polyphenol oxidase in the soil and the reduction degree was related to the concentration of MPs. However, the addition of PLA significantly enhanced the activity of soil urease, while PS had no significant effect on urease activity. The addition of MPs led to a decrease in the carbon metabolism ability of soil microbial communities. The carbon metabolism ability of soil microorganisms cultured with PS was higher than that of those cultured with PLA. The inhibitory effect of both on soil carbon metabolism was positively correlated with their concentration. The concentrations of PS （10%） and PLA （10%） had the strongest inhibitory effect on soil microbial carbon metabolism ability, with a decrease of 63.91% and 82.27%, respectively. PLA had a greater impact on soil microbial activity and carbon metabolism than that of PS because PLA in soil degraded easily to produce harmful dissolved organic matter and smaller plastic particles. The research results provide a theoretical basis for clarifying the ecological effects of MPs in soil and basic data for future development of standards related to soil MPs pollution.

Response and Assembly Process of Soil Microbial Communities Under Different Reclamation Measures

Reclamation is essential for restoring the ecological function of soil in mining areas. However, the microbiological mechanism of soil ecological function reconstruction under different reclamation measures still needs to be clarified. Clarifying the characteristics of soil bacterial and fungal communities, assembly mechanisms, and their relationship with physicochemical properties under different reclamation measures is crucial for reshaping the ecological stability of soil in mining areas. Metagenomic sequencing technology was combined with the null model and neutral model to analyze the differences in soil microbial diversity, community composition, network structure, and community assembly process between the reclaimed natural recovery area （LH） and the reclamation fertilization area （MM）. The results suggested that： ① Compared with that in the LH treatment, the MM treatment significantly increased the soil nutrient content, and the total nitrogen （TN）, total phosphorus （TP）, available phosphorus （AP）, and available potassium （AK） contents increased by 34.70%, 72.72%, 468.98%, and 45.74%, respectively （P<0.05）. ② The dominant bacterial and fungal communities did not change under the LH and MM treatments； however, the abundance of bacterial communities changed significantly. Compared with that in the LH treatment, the relative abundance of Acidobacteria increased significantly by 5.4% in the MM treatment, while the relative abundance of Candidatus Rokubacteria decreased significantly by 235.72% （P<0.05）. Under different reclamation measures, the indicator microorganisms of bacterial and fungal communities changed. ③ Compared with that in the LH treatment, the MM treatment increased the complexity of bacterial networks, decreased the complexity of fungal networks, and increased the number of soil bacterial nodes and links. The reclamation measures transformed the key bacterial groups from Proteobacteria to Candidatus Rokubacteria and Planctomycetes. The key group of fungi was Ascomycota. 4.） The deterministic process dominated the assembly of bacterial and fungal communities. Homogeneous selection contributed the most to the bacterial community assembly in the LH treatment, and heterogeneous selection contributed the most to the MM treatment. The fungal communities were all dominated by heterogeneous selection. These results provide new insights into the soil microbial community structure and ecological function restoration in coal mining subsidence reclamation areas.

Salt stress affects the bacterial communities in rhizosphere soil of rice

Salt is a primary factor limiting the utilization of saline lands in coastal beach areas, with rhizosphere microorganisms playing a crucial role in enhancing crop stress resistance and exhibiting high sensitivity to environmental changes. Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the preferred crop for reclaiming salinized soils. This study determined the microbial communities in rhizosphere soil of rice under different salt stress treatments by high-throughput sequencing. We found that salt stress changed the bacterial community diversity, structure and function in rhizosphere soil of rice. Salt stress significantly reduced the richness and diversity of bacterial communities in rhizosphere soil of rice. The bacterial community was characterized by higher abundance of the phyla Chloroflexi, Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria; the relative abundances of Firmicutes, Acidobacteriota and Myxococcota were decreased, while Bacteroidota and Cyanobacteria were increased under salt stress. The functions of bacterial communities in rhizosphere soil of rice mainly include chemoheterotrophy, aerobic_chemoheterotrophy, phototrophy etc., chemoheterotrophy and aerobic_chemoheterotrophy were significantly higher NS3 (adding 3‰ NaCl solution to the base soil) treatment than NS6 (adding 6‰ NaCl solution to the base soil) treatment. These findings provide a theoretical foundation for the development of specialized salt-tolerant microbial agents for rice cultivation and offer a viable strategy for improving the soil environment of saline coastal lands through the application of beneficial microorganisms.

Gridded, temporally referenced spatial information on soil organic carbon for Hungary

Soil organic carbon (SOC), known as the most important soil attribute, affects various soil functions and services, essential for nutritious food and clean drinking water. Since recognizing its key role in many environmental challenges, there has been an increasing demand for spatial information on SOC. Our objective is to present the results of a mapping activity aimed at producing spatially exhaustive information on SOC content, density, and stock for the topsoils of Hungary for 1992 and 2000. A “time-for-space” digital soil mapping approach was pursued to predict and map these SOC properties, with the associated uncertainty, at a resolution of 100 × 100 m. Particular attention was paid to validating the accuracy of the maps and the reliability of the uncertainty quantifications. The published maps are recommended to be used as baseline maps for Hungary. The spatial resolution makes them suitable for various practical applications (e.g., GHG inventory, sustainable agriculture, carbon sequestration). The maps are of interest to researchers, practitioners, and policymakers, helping to achieve scientifically sound results and informed decision-making.

Multiple element coupling and molecular-chemical diversity of organic matter control how much energy is retained in soils in mountain ecosystems

Organic matter is the primary repository of chemical energy driving biogeochemical cycles and maintaining ecological functions in soils. Therefore, revealing factors controlling energy in soils is critical but has less been studied so far. In this study, we investigated energy stored in soils and litter biomass, 12 elements level (macroelements including C, N, P, Fe, and K, microelements including Cu, Li, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn), and molecular-chemical composition of soil organic matter (SOM) among four vegetation zones along the elevation in the Changbai Mountain. The calorific values in soils (Qs) and litters (Ql) were determined using oxygen bomb calorimetry. The complexity of SOM was reflected by molecular diversity of pyrolytic products of SOM (SHID), and relations among 12 elements were represented by defining coupling extent (MEC). Potential impacts of MEC and SHID on energy stored in soils were discussed. Results indicated that the average Qs and Ql were 565 cal/g and 3799 cal/g, respectively. The proportion of Qs to Ql (Qr) ranged from 6.28 % to 43.65 % with a mean of 14.74 %. Significant differences in Qs and Ql were observed among four vegetation zones along the elevation. Significantly positive relations were observed between elevation and Ql, between MEC and Qr or Qs, and between Qs and SHID. The VPA analysis indicated that MEC itself could explain 19 % variation of Qs, and the exploration raised to 60 % when MEC was in conjunction with elevation, pH, and SHID. The structure equation model confirmed positive effects of MEC and SHID on Qs. In conclusions, MEC was primarily associated with energy holding by mountain soils, proving that a conceptual advance was required to link element biogeochemical cycle and energy flow in ecosystems, thereby bridging the potential gap between matter and energy in ecological research.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi enhance drought resistance and alter microbial communities in maize rhizosphere soil

Although the benefits of inoculation with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) for mitigating drought stress and enhancing plant growth of host are well‐studied, our understanding of their interactions with soil attributes and rhizosphere microbial communities remains limited. In the present study, we conducted a pot experiment to explore how AMF affects maize growth, antioxidant activity, soil properties, and the rhizosphere microbial communities under drought stress. The results showed that AMF inoculation during drought stress resulted in improved maize seedling growth, significantly increasing plant biomass (42.7%), chlorophyll content (13.4%), and antioxidant capacity. It also enhanced soil nutrient availability and microbial biomass. We observed significant shifts in the structure and composition of the rhizosphere microbial community with AMF inoculation under drought conditions when compared to those under well-watered conditions. Significantly, bacterial diversity and composition showed greater sensitivity to drought stress than fungal communities. This was attributed to plants preferentially reducing the supply of carbon sources to bacterial rather than to fungal communities under drought conditions. AMF inoculation also enhanced the complexity (e.g., degree) and stability of the rhizosphere microbial ecological network, suggesting closer ecological interactions within the soil microbial community. Furthermore, bacterial diversity and richness played a more important role in soil function than those of fungal communities under drought stress, particularly with AMF inoculation. Overall, our findings suggest that AMF inoculation alters soil microbial diversity and interactions, highlighting their key roles in enhancing plant stress tolerance and mitigating the negative effects of drought on agricultural ecosystems.

Response of bacterial and fungal composition in tailings to Mn pollution

Microorganisms are crucial for natural remediation of heavy metal pollution in mining areas. The regional survey and process analysis of Mn mine microbes is still limited. We investigated microbial species composition in tailings and adjacent soils of seven typical Mn mining areas in wet mid-subtropical China. The Mn bioavailable content in tailings was 55 times higher than in soils. Compared to soils, the heavy metal pollution in tailings reduced the hydrolase activities and microbial species diversity by 97% and 38%, respectively. The co-occurrence network of bacterial and fungal species in tailings was dominated by symbiosis and synergism, and their network complexity was lower than soils. Linear discriminant analysis of effect size revealed that Ralstonia, Acidisoma, and Talaromyces were the species most stimulated by Mn pollution because their relative and absolute abundance in tailings was much higher than in soils (p < 0.001). These key species defined the co-occurrence networks and affected metabolic pathways of microbial communities. Electrical conductivity and its interaction with Mn bioavailability strongly affected tailings microbial key species. This work identified the key species adapted to extreme Mn pollution in tailings, that can be used by bioremediation and maintenance of ecosystem functions in Mn-contaminated soils.

Transformation of Water Retention and Transport Function of Artificial Soils in Moscow

Transformation of Water Retention and Transport Function of Artificial Soils in Moscow

Changes in selenium bioavailability in selenium-enriched paddy soils induced by different water management and organic amendments

Combined effects of water management and agricultural organic waste return on selenium (Se) bioavailability and mechanisms in Se-enriched paddy soils remain unclear. We investigated the effects of continuous flooding (CF) and alternating wet and dry (AWD), two types (cotton straw biochar [BC] and sheep manure [SM]) and concentrations (10 and 50 g·kg−1) of organic amendments on soil Se bioavailability, bacterial community structure in naturally Se-enriched soils (1.69 mg·kg−1). Results showed that 10 g·kg−1 SM treatment was the most effective in increasing Se bioavailability, especially under AWD treatment, whereas BC treatment reduced it. Compared with CF treatment, AWD treatment increased the Se content of root surface iron plaque and rhizosphere affinity for Se, and promoted the conversion of soil weakly organic matter bound Se to soluble-Se and exchangeable-Se. BC and SM addition significantly altered soil solution Fe(II), dissolved organic carbon, and soil bacterial community structure and function, including sulfur-oxidizing bacteria (Thiobacillus) and Se-reducing bacteria (Pseudarthrobacter), under different water management regimes. Notably, these bacteria showed a significant correlation with bioavailable Se. The present study provides theoretical guidance for agronomic practices in Se-enriched paddy soils.

Soil properties and microbial evolution during cropping system conversion: Insights from a 105-year study in southern China

Understanding the mechanisms by which soil environments and microbial communities evolve in response to long-term changes in cropping systems is essential for the development of effective ecological conservation and restoration strategies. In this study, variations of soil characteristics and the succession of microbial community assemblages and functions were investigated in southern Chinese deciduous forests and adjacent converted tea plantations at different ages (20, 40, 60, and 105 years). The results revealed significant alterations in soil properties and the emergence of distinct diversity patterns and assembly mechanisms for bacterial and fungal communities over the century-long succession period. Bacterial α-diversity exhibited a declining trend throughout succession, while fungal α-diversity experienced a rebound in the later stages. Null model analysis indicated that stochastic processes primarily drove the assembly of the bacterial community in both forests and tea plantations, whereas fungal community assembly gradually shifted from stochastic dominance to deterministic dominance. The strength of interactions between bacterial taxa in tea plantations decreased over time, but the topological properties of fungal networks were restored in tea plantations aged 60 and 105 years. The functional groups of bacteria associated with carbon cycling and saprotrophic fungi significantly increased after tea cultivation, which was closely linked to the proliferation of r-strategists stimulated by sufficient nutrients in tea plantations. It is noteworthy that in addition to typical environmental variables such as nutrients and pH, soil polyphenols in tea plantations also have a profound effect on the composition and assembly processes of bacterial and fungal communities. These findings advance the current understanding of how long-term cropping system changes affect soil microbial community assembly and functionality, and highlight the distinct strategies by which bacteria and fungi respond to cropping system change.

PGPR consortia promote soil quality and functioning in barley rhizosphere under different levels of drought stress

PGPR consortia promote soil quality and functioning in barley rhizosphere under different levels of drought stress

Microplastics abundance associated with farmland use types and the impact on soil microbial communities: A case study in Southern China

To investigate the impact of various farmland use types on the spatial distribution of microplastics (MPs) and their correlation with microbial communities, 78 soil samples from distinct farmland use types (orchard, paddy field, and vegetable field) in Southern China were examined. Results revealed that the abundance of MPs ranged from 528 to 39,864 items/kg with a mean abundance of 10,562 items/kg, which were primarily 0–30 μm in size. A total of 32 polymer types were identified, with the main polymer being polyethylene terephthalate (PET, 28.8%), followed by polyvinyl chloride (PVC, 13.5%) and fluororubber (FKM, 9.5%). The abundance of MPs was highest in orchard field (8,896 ± 5,745 items/kg), followed by paddy field (4,176 ± 2,976 items/kg) and lastly vegetable field (2,967 ± 3,698 items/kg). Results of 16 S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing showed that the presence of MPs affected the bacterial distribution patterns. Compared with soil bacterial communities, the spatial dispersion and dissimilarity of plasticsphere communities were less variable. Notably, the predicted sequences related to xenobiotics biodegradation and metabolism became more abundant, thereby affecting the ecological function of soil. Overall, this study provides important data for further research on MP ecosystem risks associated with farmland use types.

Applicability of soil health assessment dominated by biological indicators in facility agriculture

The minimum data set (MDS) is widely used for soil health index (SHI) assessment, with the selection of indicators being crucial. However, biological indicators are less frequently used compared to physical and chemical indicators. This study aimed to establish a biologically-centered MDS for assessing soil health in tomato facility agriculture in Ningbo. Using biochemical, microbiological, and nematode data from 60 continuous cropping soils, we identified key indicators for the MDS. Principal component analysis revealed a strong correlation between the MDS and the total data set (TDS), with the final MDS including available phosphorus, electrical conductivity, β-glucosidase, urease, bacterial Chao1 index, bacterial Shannon index, Ralstonia solanacearum, nematode Shannon index, structure index, and channel index. Random forest modeling showed that the predicted SHI had a high fit with the MDS-SHI, with bacterial and nematode Shannon indices being the most influential predictors, emphasizing the critical role of biological communities in maintaining soil health. Furthermore, the study identified three distinct phases in soil health during long-term continuous cropping: healthy (0–10 years), sub-healthy (11–15 years), and recovery (16–20 years), demonstrating the soil's potential for self-recovery. By incorporating biodiversity as a core component, this biologically-focused MDS provides a more comprehensive and precise method for evaluating soil health in facility agriculture. The findings suggest that this MDS could inform future research and applications in similar agricultural systems. Moreover, the results highlight the vital role of biodiversity in agroecosystem stability, suggesting that future soil health assessments should place greater emphasis on biological indicators to better capture the complexity of soil functions.

Effects of thermal desorption temperature up to 500°C on the thermophysical properties and fertility of soil in organic-contaminated sites

High-temperature thermal desorption is effective for remediating organic-contaminated sites, but its damage to soil functions and high energy consumption raise concerns. In this work, the variation of fertility indicators of two soils with thermal treatment temperature was investigated experimentally. To overcome the difficulties in measuring soil thermophysical properties under sealing and high-temperature conditions, two apparatus matching with the Hot Disk device were established and by which massive data were measured. The results show that, as temperature rises up to 500°C, the combustion and decomposition of organic components and soil minerals gradually enhance, leading to a decrease in most fertility indicators, but an increase in grain size and pH. Available phosphorus and exchangeable potassium decrease with temperature rise first, but increase over 400°C. Soil thermal conductivity and specific heat are positively correlated with temperature and water content. Water diffusion will intensify over 40∼60°C, leading to an intense increase in soil thermal conductivity. The results are expected to provide data basis and theoretical guidance for the comprehensive consideration of remediation effects, land reuse, and energy consumption in practical applications of thermal desorption remediation.

Long-term intercropping shaped soil bacterial microbiome composition and structure of maize fields in a semiarid region

Intercropping has gained attention for its potential to enhance soil health and increase crop yields in agroecosystems, in which soil microbial community play a key regulatory role. Bacteria is critical for a variety of soil biological processes, so promoting the understanding of soil microbiome within bacteria can improve the agricultural management practices. Here, the responses of soil bacterial community composition, functions, and assembly to long-term intercropping were assessed using 16S rRNA gene sequencing in the mountainous area of Southern Ningxia, spanning approximately 10 years until summer 2022. The experiment comprised three field treatments: maize monoculture (MM), intercropping of maize and potato (MP) and intercropping of maize and soybean (MS). The results showed that intercropping altered the relative abundance of major phyla and genera, and life-history strategies, mainly influenced by microbial biomass carbon and enzyme activities. The ratio of K- to r-strategy bacteria showed a trend of MP (0.77) > MM (0.76)> MS (0.56). Soil bacterial community structure of MP and MS was significantly different and similar to that of MM, respectively. Bugbase and PICRUSt2 analysis predicted the phenotype and metabolic pathways of soil bacterial community in maize fields, revealing that maize-legume intercropping increased the oxygen tolerance of soil bacteria. Moreover, intercropping enhanced the co-occurrence network complexity and the roles of homogeneous selection and drift, while bacterial community assembly was mainly driven by stochastic processes in MM (62.32 %), MP (60.68 %), and MS (59.17 %) soils. A variety of complex factors strongly governed bacterial community and assembly processes, such as soil nutrient elements and moisture. In brief, the study revealed the effect of intercropping on soil bacterial community, contributing to the further understanding of agricultural management practices.

Soil Microorganisms: Their Role in Enhancing Crop Nutrition and Health

Maintaining soil health is fundamental to sustaining agricultural productivity, however, the intricate role of soil microbial diversity in this process is not fully understood. Current research acknowledges that soil microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, and archaea are pivotal in driving essential soil functions such as nutrient cycling, organic matter decomposition, and disease suppression. However, the impacts of global environmental changes and intensive agricultural practices on the diversity of these microorganisms remain a critical gap in the literature. This gap is significant because a decline in microbial diversity could severely compromise soil health, and consequently crop productivity. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of the factors influencing soil microbial diversity and examine their implications for crop performance. We assess both natural factors such as soil pH, moisture, temperature, and vegetation type as well as human-induced factors including tillage systems and fertilizer application. The review synthesizes recent findings on how these factors shape microbial communities and their functional roles in nutrient cycling, soil structure formation, and disease suppression. Our analysis highlights the mechanisms by which microbial diversity enhances plant growth and yield, addressing the gap in understanding the direct links between microbial diversity and agricultural outcomes. Our findings underscore the urgent need for sustainable agricultural practices that protect and enhance microbial diversity to safeguard long-term soil fertility and crop productivity. By addressing the challenges in manipulating soil microbial communities and integrating microbial ecology with crop management practices, this research advances our ability to sustain agricultural systems in the face of global environmental changes.

ITS amplicon sequencing revealed that rare taxa of tea rhizosphere fungi are closely related to the environment and provide feedback on tea tree diseases.

The rhizospheres of plants and soil microorganisms are intricately interconnected. Tea trees are cultivated extensively on the karst plateau of Guizhou Province, China; however, the understanding of the interactions among fungal communities, community taxa, and diseases impacting tea tree in the soil rhizosphere is limited. Our aim is to offer insights for the advancement of modern agriculture in ecologically fragile karst tea gardens, as well as microbiomics concepts for green and sustainable environmental development. This study utilized the internal transcribed spacer high-throughput sequencing technology to explore the symbiotic relationship between rhizosphere fungi and plant disease feedback in multiple tea estates across the Guizhou Plateau. The ecological preferences and environmental thresholds of fungi were investigated via environmental variables. Furthermore, a correlation was established between different taxa and individual soil functions. Research has indicated that tea leaf blight disrupts symbiotic connections among fungal groups. For various taxa, we found that numerous taxa consistently maintained core positions within the community, whereas rare taxa were able to stabilize due to a high proportion of positive effects. Additionally, abundant taxa presented a wider range of environmental feedback, whereas the rare taxon diversity presented a stronger positive association with the soil Z score. This study contributes to our understanding of the importance of rare taxa in plant rhizosphere soil processes. Emphasis should be placed on the role of rare taxa in pest and disease control within green agriculture while also strengthening systematic development and biogeographical research related to rare taxa in this region.IMPORTANCEIn this study, based on internal transcribed spacer high-throughput sequencing, fungal communities in the rhizosphere soil of tea trees and their interactions with the environment in karst areas were reported, and the symbiotic relationships of different fungal taxa and their feedback to the environment were described in detail by using the knowledge of microbial ecology. On this basis, it was found that tea tree diseases affect the symbiotic relationships of fungal taxa. At the same time, we found that rare taxa have stronger cooperative relationships in response to environmental changes and explored their participation in soil processes based on fungal trait sets. This study will provide basic data for the development of modern agriculture in tea gardens and theoretical basis for the sustainable prevention and control of tea tree diseases.

Quantifying the connectivity dimension of the soil security assessment framework

Connectivity is one of the five dimensions within the Soil Security Assessment Framework, designed to measure the cognitive and experiential bonds that stakeholders have with soils. However, a quantifiable framework integrating soil connectivity with the broader assessment framework has been lacking. This study addresses this gap by introducing a novel framework that assesses soil connectivity through knowledge, action, and attitude indicators. Using an online self-evaluation tool, the framework was applied to Australian land managers, focusing on the connectivity of two soil functions and six soil threats. The framework includes: utility graphs for each indicator; a method for nuanced interpretation of each soil role and connectivity indicators; spatial components; and automatic feedback to stakeholders. Our results indicate that knowledge indicators are consistently high across the country, while attitude utilities vary most and are often lowest; education had no effect, and younger stakeholders stood out for significantly lower, though still high, utility values. The study also identifies specific soil roles which require strengthening in different geographic regions. Despite the generally high levels of connectivity, the threat to soils by salinisation emerges as the soil role with the lowest connectivity utility. However, no significant correlation was found between the threat to soils by salinisation utility values and stakeholders' age or educational level, suggesting that other factors, possibly spatial or environmental, are more important. This study displays the importance of assessing knowledge, action, and attitude indicators when assessing connectivity and obtaining spatial information for spatial analysis.

Soil microbiomes show consistent and predictable responses to extreme events

Increasing extreme climatic events threaten the functioning of terrestrial ecosystems1,2. Because soil microbes govern key biogeochemical processes, understanding their response to climate extremes is crucial in predicting the consequences for ecosystem functioning3,4. Here we subjected soils from 30 grasslands across Europe to four contrasting extreme climatic events under common controlled conditions (drought, flood, freezing and heat), and compared the response of soil microbial communities and their functioning with those of undisturbed soils. Soil microbiomes exhibited a small, but highly consistent and phylogenetically conserved, response under the imposed extreme events. Heat treatment most strongly impacted soil microbiomes, enhancing dormancy and sporulation genes and decreasing metabolic versatility. Microbiome response to heat in particular could be predicted by local climatic conditions and soil properties, with soils that do not normally experience the extreme conditions being imposed being most vulnerable. Our results suggest that soil microbiomes from different climates share unified responses to extreme climatic events, but that predicting the extent of community change may require knowledge of the local microbiome. These findings advance our understanding of soil microbial responses to extreme events, and provide a first step for making general predictions about the impact of extreme climatic events on soil functioning.