Functional Overreaching Research Articles

Effect of the pre-taper level of fatigue on the taper-induced changes in performance in elite swimmers.

In swimming, performance gains after tapering could be influenced by the pre-taper level of fatigue. Moreover, this level of fatigue could be associated with sleep. This study aimed to assess (1) the effect of tapering on performance according to the pre-taper level of fatigue in swimmers and (2) the association between sleep and pre-taper level of fatigue. Physiological, psychological and biomechanical profiles were evaluated in 26 elite swimmers on 2 occasions to estimate the pre-taper level of fatigue: at T0 and T1, scheduled respectively 10 and 3 weeks before the main competition. Sleep quantity and quality were also evaluated at T0 and T1. Race time was officially assessed at T0, T1 and during the main competition. The level of significance was set at p ≤ .05. Fourteen swimmers (17 ± 2 years) were allocated to acute fatigue group (AF) and 12 swimmers (18 ± 2 years) to functional overreaching group (F-OR). From T1 to the main competition, performance was improved in AF (+1.80 ± 1.36%), while it was impaired in F-OR (-0.49 ± 1.58%, p < 0.05 vs. AF). Before taper period, total sleep time was lower in F-OR, as compared to AF. Conversely, the fragmentation index was higher in F-OR (p = .06). From wakefulness to sleep, body core temperature decreased in AF but not in F-OR. Performance gain after tapering was higher in AF swimmers than in overreached. Moreover, pre-taper sleep was poorer in overreached swimmers, which could contribute to their different response to the same training load. This poorer sleep could be linked to a lower regulation of internal temperature.

Beneficial Performance Effects of Training Load Intensification Can Be Abolished by Functional Overreaching: Lessons From a Water Polo Study in Female Athletes.

Brisola, GMP, Dutra, YM, Murias, JM, and Zagatto, AM. Beneficial performance effects of training load intensification can be abolished by functional overreaching: Lessons from a water polo study in female athletes. J Strength Cond Res 37(6): e391-e402, 2023-The purpose of this study was to compare the outcomes from 2 weeks of training load intensification strategy in female water polo players diagnosed with functional overreaching (F-OR) with no F-OR players (acute fatigue) on the performance outcomes and hormonal, immunological, and cardiac autonomic nervous system responses. Twenty-two female water polo players were allocated into control and intensification group during 7 weeks. The swimming performance, biochemical parameters, heart rate variability, profile of mood states, and upper respiratory tract infection symptoms were assessed twice before and twice after 2 weeks of intensification period. F-OR showed a worsening in total time of the repeated sprint ability (RSA) test compared with the control group and the acute fatigue group after intensification ( p ≤ 0.035). Furthermore, after the tapering period, the F-OR group maintained worse total time of the RSA test than the acute fatigue group ( p = 0.029). In addition, the acute fatigue group showed improvement in total time of the RSA test after intensification compared with the control group ( p < 0.001). No significant interactions were found for the other parameters. Therefore, periods of intensification without the F-OR development can promote higher gains in the total time of the RSA test after intensification and tapering period.

The influence of compression garments on recovery during a triathlon training camp: a pilot study

Triathletes often schedule intense training camps into their program to promote functional overreaching, although these periods pose a greater risk of illness or injury due to heightened training load. To mitigate this risk, triathletes may implement recovery strategies such as the use of compression garments. However, little is known about the influence of such garments during multi-day exercise periods. Ten highly-trained triathletes (6 male, 4 female, mean ± SD age; 32 ± 8 y) completed a six-day intensive training block and were randomly assigned to one of two recovery groups; donning lower body compression tights (COMP, n = 5) for at least 6 hours following the last training session each day, or no compression (CON, n = 5). Physical performance data (6s sprint, 30s sprint, 4-minute mean power cycling tests) was collected on Day 1 and Day 6 of the training camp and subjective wellbeing monitoring was completed daily. There were no significant group x time interactions for any of the performance or perceptual measures (p &gt; 0.05). However, a large (d = -1.35) reduction in perceived stress was observed from Day 1 to Day 5 in COMP compared to CON; and perceived muscle soreness was associated with significant main effects for group (p = 0.047) and time (p = 0.02), with COMP lower than CON on Day 4 and Day 6. Lower-body compression garments may reduce perceived stress and muscle soreness during an intense six-day triathlon training camp, with minimal influence on physical performance.

Recommendations for Advancing the Resistance Exercise Overtraining Research

Short-term periods of increased resistance exercise training are often used by athletes to enhance performance, and can induce functional overreaching (FOR), resulting in improved physical capabilities. Non-functional overreaching (NFOR) or overtraining syndrome (OTS), occur when training demand is applied for prolonged periods without sufficient recovery. Overtraining (OT) describes the imbalance between training demand and recovery, resulting in diminished performance. While research into the effects of resistance exercise OT has gathered attention from sports scientists in recent years, the current research landscape is heterogeneous, disparate, and underrepresented in the literature. To date, no studies have determined a reliable physiological or psychological marker to assist in the early detection of NFOR or OTS following periods of resistance exercise OT. The purpose of this work is to highlight the conceptual and methodological limitations within some of the current literature, and to propose directions for future research to enhance current understanding.

"I Want to Create So Much Stimulus That Adaptation Goes Through the Roof": High-Performance Strength Coaches' Perceptions of Planned Overreaching.

Functional overreaching (FOR) occurs when athletes experience improved athletic capabilities in the days and weeks following short-term periods of increased training demand. However, prolonged high training demand with insufficient recovery may also lead to non-functional overreaching (NFOR) or the overtraining syndrome (OTS). The aim of this research was to explore strength coaches' perceptions and experiences of planned overreaching (POR); short-term periods of increased training demand designed to improve athletic performance. Fourteen high-performance strength coaches (weightlifting; n = 5, powerlifting; n = 4, sprinting; n = 2, throws; n = 2, jumps; n = 1) participated in semistructured interviews. Reflexive thematic analysis identified 3 themes: creating enough challenge, training prescription, and questioning the risk to reward. POR was implemented for a 7 to 14 day training cycle and facilitated through increased daily/weekly training volume and/or training intensity. Participants implemented POR in the weeks (~5–8 weeks) preceding competition to allow sufficient time for performance restoration and improvement to occur. Short-term decreased performance capacity, both during and in the days to weeks following training, was an anticipated by-product of POR, and at times used as a benchmark to confirm that training demand was sufficiently challenging. Some participants chose not to implement POR due to a lack of knowledge, confidence, and/or perceived increased risk of athlete training maladaptation. Additionally, this research highlights the potential dichotomy between POR protocols used by strength coaches to enhance athletic performance and those used for the purpose of inducing training maladaptation for diagnostic identification.

Is Functional Overreaching or Acute Fatigue the Key to the Effects of Concentrated Block Training in Running?

Borszcz, FK, Vieira, MT, Tramontin, AF, Visentainer, LH, and Costa, VP. Is functional overreaching or acute fatigue the key to the effects of concentrated block training in running? J Strength Cond Res 36(12): 3485-3496, 2022-This study examined the effects of 5 consecutive days of high- and moderate-intensity training on performance and physiological measures in moderately trained individuals. The relationship of the training organization with the state of overreaching and acute fatigue was investigated. Twenty-four male soldiers (age, 19.3 ± 0.4 years; V̇o2peak, 58.7 ± 3.8 ml·kg-1·min-1) were assigned to 2 training groups for 5 consecutive days of either high- or moderate-intensity training. The subjects underwent incremental and 12-minute time trial tests before, immediately after, 1 and 2 weeks after training. The high- and moderate-intensity sessions were 30 minutes in duration and performed at fixed velocities of 13.3 and 10 km·h-1 (near second and first ventilatory thresholds), respectively. Acute fatigue and overreaching criteria were set as concomitant nonimpairment and impairment, respectively, in the incremental peak velocity and 12-minute time trial performances at posttest immediately after the training block. Data analyses were completed using hierarchical Bayesian's models. In subjects who wer trained at moderate intensity, no performance impairment occurred (i.e., acute fatigue); for the high-intensity training, 5 subjects showed impairment in performance and were classified as overreached. Only in subjects who were acutely fatigued, clear beneficial effects were observed in incremental test peak velocity and 12-minute time trial performances. In moderately trained runners, a block of 5 consecutive days of moderate-intensity training was demonstrated to be a useful strategy for the improvement of performance. However, high-intensity training does not seem to be a safe strategy because of the observations of overreaching and inferior probabilities of performance improvements.

Impact of tapering and proactive recovery on young elite rugby union players’ repeated high intensity effort ability

To assess the effects of a taper combined with proactive recovery on the repeated high intensity effort (RHIE) of elite rugby union players, and the possible interaction of pre-taper fatigue and sleep. Eighteen players performed a 3-week intensive training block followed by a 7-day exponential taper combined with a multicomponent recovery strategy. Following the intervention, players were divided into 3 groups (Normal Training: NT, Acute Fatigue: AF or Functional Overreaching: F-OR) based on their readiness to perform prior to the taper. Total sprint time [TST], percentage decrement [%D] and the number of sprints ≥90% of the best [N90] were analyzed to assess performance during a RHIE test. Subjective sleep quality was assessed through the Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) and the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS). No improvement in TST was reported in either NT or F-OR after the taper, whereas AF tended to improve (-1.58 ± 1.95%; p > 0.05; g = -0.20). F-OR players reported baseline PSQI and ESS indicative of sleep disturbance (6.2 ± 2.2 and 10.6 ± 5.4, respectively). AF displayed a small impairment in PSQI during intensive training (11.5 ± 80.6%; p > 0.05; g = 0.20), which was reversed following the taper (-34.6 ± 62.1%; p > 0.05; g = -0.73). Pre-taper fatigue precluded the expected performance benefits of the combined taper and recovery intervention, likely associated with a lack of strictly controlled intensive training block. Poor sleep quality before the intensive training period appeared to predispose the players to developing functional overreaching.

A Systematic Review on Markers of Functional Overreaching in Endurance Athletes

The aim of this brief review was to present an overview of noninvasive markers in trained to professional endurance athletes that can reflect a state of functional overreaching. A systematic literature search was conducted in the PubMed, Scopus, and PsycINFO databases. After screening 380 articles, 12 research papers were included for the systematic review. Good consensus was found between the different papers in which noninvasive parameters were able to reflect a state of functional overreaching. Changes in power output (PO), heart rate (HR; [sub]maximal and HR recovery), rating of perceived exertion, and scores in the Daily Analysis of Life Demands for Athletes (DALDA) and/or Profile of Mood States (POMS) were shown to be able to reflect functional overreaching, whereas changes in maximal oxygen uptake and HR-variability parameters were not. Functional overreaching within a maximal performance test was characterized by a decrease in peak PO and a lower maximum HR, whereas a lower mean PO and a lower HR were observed during time trials. Changes in parameters during a standardized submaximal test when functionally overreached were characterized by a higher PO at a fixed HR or a lower HR at a fixed intensity, higher rating of perceived exertion, and a faster HR recovery. Although both the DALDA and POMS were able to reflect functional overreaching, the POMS was not able to differentiate this response from acute fatigue, which makes it unsuitable for accurately monitoring functional overreaching.

"Is It Overtraining or Just Work Ethic?": Coaches' Perceptions of Overtraining in High-Performance Strength Sports.

Optimal physical performance is achieved through the careful manipulation of training and recovery. Short-term increases in training demand can induce functional overreaching (FOR) that can lead to improved physical capabilities, whereas nonfunctional overreaching (NFOR) or the overtraining syndrome (OTS) occur when high training-demand is applied for extensive periods with limited recovery. To date, little is known about the OTS in strength sports, particularly from the perspective of the strength sport coach. Fourteen high-performance strength sport coaches from a range of strength sports (weightlifting; n = 5, powerlifting; n = 4, sprinting; n = 2, throws; n = 2, jumps; n = 1) participated in semistructured interviews (mean duration 57; SD = 10 min) to discuss their experiences of the OTS. Reflexive thematic analysis resulted in the identification of four higher order themes: definitions, symptoms, recovery and experiences and observations. Additional subthemes were created to facilitate organisation and presentation of data, and to aid both cohesiveness of reporting and publicising of results. Participants provided varied and sometimes dichotomous perceptions of the OTS and proposed a multifactorial profile of diagnostic symptoms. Prevalence of OTS within strength sports was considered low, with the majority of participants not observing or experiencing long-term reductions in performance with their athletes.

Heart rate-based indices to detect parasympathetic hyperactivity in functionally overreached athletes. A meta-analysis.

Investigations into the sensitivity of heart rate-(HR) derived indices for tracking parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) changes in functionally overreached (F-OR) endurance-trained athletes have produced equivocal findings. Lack of clarity may be a result of methodological inconsistencies. Therefore, the aims of this systematic review and meta-analysis were (a) to determine the sensitivity of resting and post-exercise vagal-related HR variability (HRV) and HR recovery (HRR) indices to detect PNS modulation in F-OR and non-overreached (non-OR) athletes, and (b) to investigate the influence of methodological factors on the sensitivity of HR-based indices to detect PNS hyperactivity in F-OR athletes. We searched CENTRAL, Scopus, PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science up to May 2020 for the following terms: male and female endurance-trained athletes, controlled and uncontrolled studies that carried out an overload training period, and PNS modulation measured in resting and post-exercise, pre- and post-overload training period. A random-effects model of standardized mean difference (SMD) was estimated for each outcome measure based on the training-induced fatigue status (F-OR vs non-OR athletes), and the influence of methodological issues to detect PNS hyperactivity in F-OR was assessed by subgroup analyses. Pooled analysis showed that resting vagal-related HRV indices did not detect PNS hyperactivity in F-OR athletes (SMD+ = -0.01; 95% confidence interval [CI] = -0.51, 0.50), and no statistical difference (P=.600) was found with non-OR athletes (SMD+ = 0.15; 95% CI = -0.14, 0.45). However, subgroup analysis based on HRV parameter showed a moderate statistical increase in weekly averaged HRV in F-OR athletes (SMD+ = 0.81; 95% CI=0.35, 1.26), while isolated HRV values did not reach statistical significance (SMD+ = -0.45; 95% CI = -0.96, 0.06). We observed a moderate and statistically significant increase in HRR indices among F-OR athletes (SMD+ = 0.65; 95% CI=0.44, 0.87), no changes for non-OR athletes (SMD+ = 0.10; 95% CI=-0.15, 0.34), and statistically significant differences between F-OR and non-OR athletes (P<.001). Insufficient data prevented meta-analysis for post-exercise vagal-related HRV indices. Our findings show that when methodological factors are considered, HR-based indices are sensitive to increased PNS modulation in F-OR.

The Impact of Functional Overreaching on Post-exercise Parasympathetic Reactivation in Runners.

While post-exercise heart rate (HR) variability (HRV) has been shown to increase in response to training leading to improvements in performance, the effect of training leading to decrements in performance (i.e., overreaching) on this parameter has been largely ignored. This study evaluated the effect of heavy training leading to performance decrements on sub-maximal post-exercise HRV. Running performance [5 km treadmill time-trial (5TTT)], post-exercise HRV [root-mean-square difference of successive normal R-R intervals (RMSSD)] and measures of subjective training tolerance (Daily Analysis of Life Demands for Athletes “worse than normal” scores) were assessed in 11 male runners following 1 week of light training (LT), 2 weeks of heavy training (HT) and a 10 day taper (T). Post-exercise RMSSD was assessed following 5 min of running exercise at an individualised speed eliciting 85% of peak HR. Time to complete 5TTT likely increased following HT (ES = 0.14 ± 0.03; p < 0.001), and then almost certainly decreased following T (ES = −0.30 ± 0.07; p < 0.001). Subjective training tolerance worsened after HT (ES = −2.54 ± 0.62; p = 0.001) and improved after T (ES = 2.16 ± 0.64; p = 0.004). In comparison to LT, post-exercise RMSSD likely increased at HT (ES = 0.65 ± 0.55; p = 0.06), and likely decreased at T (ES = −0.69 ± 0.45; p = 0.02). A moderate within-subject correlation was found between 5TTT and post-exercise RMSSD (r = 0.47 ± 0.36; p = 0.03). Increased post-exercise RMSSD following HT demonstrated heightened post-exercise parasympathetic modulation in functionally overreached athletes. Heightened post-exercise RMSSD in this context appears paradoxical given this parameter also increases in response to improvements in performance. Thus, additional measures such as subjective training tolerance are required to interpret changes in post-exercise RMSSD.

Heart rate acceleration at relative workloads during treadmill and overground running for tracking exercise performance during functional overreaching

Maximal rate of heart rate (HR) increase (rHRI) as a measure of HR acceleration during the transition from rest to exercise, or during an increase in workload, tracks exercise performance. rHRI assessed at relative rather than absolute workloads may track performance better, and a field test would increase applicability. This study therefore aimed to evaluate the sensitivity of rHRI assessed at individualised relative workloads during treadmill and overground running for tracking exercise performance. Treadmill running performance (5 km time trial; 5TTT) and rHRI were assessed in 11 male runners following 1 week of light training (LT), 2 weeks of heavy training (HT) and a 10-day taper (T). rHRI was the first derivative maximum of a sigmoidal curve fit to HR data collected during 5 min of treadmill running at 65% peak HR (rHRI65%), and subsequent transition to 85% peak HR (rHRI85%). Participants ran at the same speeds overground, paced by a foot-mounted accelerometer. Time to complete 5TTT likely increased following HT (ES = 0.14 ± 0.03), and almost certainly decreased following T (ES = − 0.30 ± 0.07). Treadmill and field rHRI65% likely increased after HT in comparison to LT (ES ≤ 0.48 ± 0.32), and was unchanged at T. Treadmill and field rHRI85% was unchanged at HT in comparison to LT, and likely decreased at T in comparison to LT (ES ≤ − 0.55 ± 0.50). 5TTT was not correlated with treadmill or field rHRI65% or rHRI85%. rHRI65% was highly correlated between treadmill and field tests across LT, HT and T (r ≥ 0.63), but correlations for rHRI85% were trivial to moderate (r ≤ 0.42). rHRI assessed at relative exercise intensities does not track performance. rHRI assessed during the transition from rest to running overground and on a treadmill at the same running speed were highly correlated, suggesting that rHRI can be validly assessed under field conditions at 65% of peak HR.

Markers Of Training Stress Associated With Functional Overreaching In Middle Distance Runners

PURPOSE: The present study aimed to identify markers of training stress that were related to the incidence of overreaching in response to overload training in middle distance runners. METHODS: Twenty-four middle distance runners (n=16 M, V̇O2peak: 73.3±4.3 mL·kg·min-1; n=8 F, V̇O2peak: 63.2±3.4 mL·kg·min-1) completed 3 wk of normal training, followed by 3 wk of high-volume training (HVTr; 10% increase in volume each successive week), and a 1-wk taper (TapTr; 55% exponential reduction in training volume from HVTr wk 3). Before, and immediately after each training phase, an incremental treadmill test was performed to measure time to exhaustion (TTE), peak heart rate (HRpeak), HR recovery, peak blood lactate concentration ([La]bpeak) and V̇O2peak. In addition, resting metabolic rate (RMR), body composition, energy intake and resting blood biomarkers of training stress were measured. Runners who had a decreased TTE (>CV) after HVTr were classified as being functionally overreached (FOR), others as acutely fatigued (AF; no decrease performance). Differences between AF and FOR were analysed using mixed-model ANOVAs with pairwise comparisons. RESULTS: Following HVTr, there were significant between group differences in the responses to exhaustive running, whereby FOR (n=12) had a decrease in TTE (-49 ± 14 s), HRpeak (-4 ± 3 BPM; p = 0.02), [La]bpeak (-4.30 ± 1.80 mmol·L-1; p = 0.01) and V̇O2peak (-2.33 ± 2.0 mL·kg·min-1,) and a faster HR recovery (-5 ± 4 BPM; p = 0.03) compared to AF (n=12). There were no between group differences in these variables during submaximal running, nor were there changes in absolute or relative RMR, while only the FOR group increased energy intake during the HVTr. There was no statistically significant change in body composition in either group throughout the study nor were there changes in resting blood biomarkers that reflected inflammation (IL-6, GDF-15 and CRP), metabolism (thyroid hormones), catabolism and anabolism (DHEA, urea, total protein, testosterone, cortisol and GH) or iron regulation (iron, ferritin, and UIBC). CONCLUSIONS: Middle distance runners who were classified as FOR following an overload training period did not have alterations in RMR, resting blood biomarkers or submaximal exercise responses compared to runners who did not have impaired performance.

Overreaching and overtraining in strength sports and resistance training: A scoping review

ABSTRACT To date, little is known about overreaching (OR) and the overtraining syndrome (OTS) in strength sports and resistance training (RT) populations. However, the available literature may elucidate the occurrence of both conditions in these populations. A scoping review was conducted. SPORTDiscus, Scopus and Web of Science were searched in a robust and systematic manner, with relevant articles analysed. 1170 records were retrieved during an initial search, with a total of 47 included in the review. Two broad themes were identified during data extraction: 1) overreaching in strength sports; 2) overreaching and overtraining syndrome in RT. Short-term periods of OR achieved with either high-volume or high-intensity RT can elicit functional OR (FOR) but there is also evidence that chronic high-volume and/or intensity RT can lead to non-functional overreaching (NFOR). There is minimal evidence to suggest that true OTS has occurred in strength sports or RT based on the studies entered during this review. More research is needed to develop robust guiding principles for practitioners. Additionally, due to the heterogeneous nature of the existing literature, future research would benefit from the development of practical tools to identify and diagnose the transition from FOR to NFOR, and subsequently OTS in strength athletes and RT populations. Abbreviations RT: Resistance training; OR: Overreaching; FOR: Functional overreaching; NFOR: Non-functional overreaching; OTS: Overtraining syndrome; WP: Weightlifting performance

The Effect of Overreaching on Neuromuscular Performance and Wellness Responses in Australian Rules Football Athletes.

Campbell, PG, Stewart, IB, Sirotic, AC, and Minett, GM. Title: The effect of overreaching on neuromuscular performance and wellness responses in Australian rules football athletes. J Strength Cond Res 34(6): 1530-1538, 2020-This study seeks to evaluate the effect of periodized fluctuations in training load on wellness and psychological questionnaires, perceived exertion, performance, and neuromuscular measures in team-sport athletes. Thirteen amateur Australian rules football athletes completed 6 weeks of periodized training, consisting of 2-week normal training (NT), intensified training (IT), and taper training (TT). Training sessions were quantified using global positioning system devices, heart-rate, and session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE), with wellness (general soreness, sleep quality/quantity, readiness to train, fatigue, stress, mood, and motivation) questionnaires collected daily. Psychological (Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes) and physical performance (countermovement jump, cycle ergometer peak power, 30-m sprint, and 2-km time trial) markers were measured after each training period. Perceived (sRPE) and mechanical loading were higher for IT than NT, and IT than TT (p < 0.03; d = 0.65-25.34). Cycle ergometer peak power, 30-m sprint, 2-km time trial, and countermovement jump height showed reductions in performance after IT compared to initial testing (p < 0.02; d = 0.51-1.46), with subsequent increases in performance after TT (p < 0.04; d = 0.66-2.27). Average wellness was higher during NT compared to IT (p = 0.005; d = 1.11). Readiness to train did not significantly differ from NT to IT or TT (p < 0.55; d = <0.59); however, readiness to train did improve during TT after the IT (p = 0.01; d = 1.05). The disturbances in performance, perceptual, and mood states may indicate a state of functional overreaching. The findings suggest that an averaged wellness score may be useful in potentially identifying overreaching. However, despite the popularity of wellness in monitoring systems, these measures overall demonstrated a limited capacity to differentiate between periodized fluctuations in load.

Functional Overreaching in Endurance Athletes: A Necessity or Cause for Concern?

There are variable responses to short-term periods of increased training load in endurance athletes, whereby some athletes improve without deleterious effects on performance, while others show diminished exercise performance for a period of days to months. The time course of the decrement in performance and subsequent restoration, or super compensation, has been used to distinguish between the different stages of the fitness-fatigue adaptive continuum termed functional overreaching (FOR), non-functional overreaching (NFOR) or overtraining syndrome. The short-term transient training-induced decrements in performance elicited by increases in training load (i.e. FOR) are thought be a sufficient and necessary component of a training program and are often deliberately induced in training to promote meaningful physiological adaptations and performance super-compensation. Despite the supposition that deliberately inducing FOR in athletes may be necessary to achieve performance super-compensation, FOR has been associated with various negative cardiovascular, hormonal and metabolic consequences. Furthermore, recent studies have demonstrated dampened training and performance adaptations in FOR athletes compared to non-overreached athletes who completed the same training program or the same relative increase in training load. However, this is not always the case and a number of studies have also demonstrated substantial performance super-compensation in athletes who were classified as being FOR. It is possible that there are a number of contextual factors that may influence the metabolic consequences associated with FOR and classifying this training-induced state of fatigue based purely on a decrement in performance may be an oversimplification. Here, the most recent research on FOR in endurance athletes will be critically evaluated to determine (1) if there is sufficient evidence to indicate that inducing a state of FOR is necessary and required to induce a performance super-compensation; (2) the metabolic consequences that are associated with FOR; (3) strategies that may prevent the negative consequences of overreaching.

Multiaspective diagnostics of training loads as well as biomechanical parameters and blood indices among leadingelite race walkers preparing for participation in the olympics

Research problem: In the narrative review in the introductory chapter of this study, it was shown that there are no scientific methods or tools for researching the Functional Overreaching (FOR) state limit, which determines the occurrence of the phenomenon of Non-functional Overreaching (NFOR) and the overtraining syndrome - OTS. Research objective: In principle, this research was conducted to provide evidence of the possibility of developing, implementing and controlling such a programme for preparation to participate in the Olympic Games of champions among athletes in race walking, which will guarantee that the applied training load does not cause a state of non-functional overload. Material and methods: Six walkers took part in the research, presenting the level of the international and national master class at 20 and 50 km. They were all medallists of the Polish championship. Three of them have already participated in the Olympic Games, one was a medallist at the European and World Championships. In selected periods of the developed annual training plan, measurements in variability of walking speed at the level of the anaerobic threshold (starting speed) were carried out using the pitch test. The observation of the sports training process was supplemented with a multifaceted observation of the effects of overreaching training (ORT), which included the following measurements: 1. somatic features and anthropometric indices; 2. haematological parameters of the blood and non-enzymatic antioxidant factor, glutathione (GSH), vitamin D3, and blood serum concentrations: pro-inflammatory cytokines -IL1β and IL-6, markers of oxidative stress, TAC, alpha- and gamma-TOC, proteins: Aponectin and Zonulin; 3. electromyographic (EMG) recording in the field and laboratory conditions and the work of the lower-limb muscles during the gait test with a gradual increase in its speed. Systematic monitoring of the nutritional status of walkers throughout the training cycle was performed and, on this basis, the following were established: a) principles of a rational diet and individual nutritional recommendations; b) dietary recommendations during the period of training and biological regeneration; c) individual strategies of dietary supplementation aimed at supporting immunity. Research results: Results of research have been presented in each segment of the study. Using the system-functional discourse method, they are discussed, interpreted and justified to assess the induction of beneficial skeletal muscle adaptation, ranging from increased endurance due to mitochondrial biogenesis and angiogenesis, to increased strength due to myocyte hypertrophy. Frequently encountered forms of application were: narration, description and argumentation. Conclusions: 1) The developed model of sports training for race walkers, as well as the proposed system of control and monitoring adaptation processes to physical effort can be considered as a reference point for development, for top sports class competitors, safe preparation for the target event (not exceeding the functional load limit); 2) The qualification of one of its participants for the Olympic team and the winning of medals at the Polish Championships by the remaining competitors should be considered a measurable effect of the performed observation.

Overtraining in Resistance Exercise: An Exploratory Systematic Review and Methodological Appraisal of the Literature.

The balance between training stress and recovery is important for inducing adaptations to improve athletic performance. However, continuously high training loads with insufficient recovery may cause fatigue to accumulate and result in overtraining. A comprehensive systematic review is required to collate overtraining literature and improve the current understanding of the mechanisms underlying functional overreaching (FOR), non-functional overreaching (NFOR) and the overtraining syndrome (OTS) in resistance training. The objective of this systematic review was to establish markers of overtraining and elucidate the mechanisms underlying maladaptive resistance training conditions. Furthermore, this review aims to critically evaluate the methodological approaches of the overtraining literature. A systematic literature search was performed on PubMed, Web of Science and SPORTDiscus to identify studies up to June 2019. Electronic databases were searched using terms related to resistance training and overtraining. Records were included if they attempted to induce a state of overreaching or overtraining through resistance exercise in healthy participants. A total of 22 studies were selected for review. Among these studies, eight resulted in decrements in performance and measured changes in performance during a follow-up period. There were four studies that reported decrease in performance yet failed to implement follow-up measures. A total of 10 studies reported no decline in performance. Overall, a lack of standardisation in methodology (follow-up performance testing) and diagnostic criteria prevents consistent determination of FOR, NFOR and OTS in resistance training. Few studies have appropriately established FOR, NFOR or OTS in resistance training. Overtraining may be related to frequent high-intensity and monotonous resistance training. However, no marker other than a sustained decrease in performance has been established as a reliable indicator of overtraining in resistance exercise. This systematic review was registered on the Open Science Framework (https://osf.io/) (https://doi.org/10.17605/osf.io/5bmsp).

DETECTION OF OVERREACHING AND OVERTRAINING DUE TO PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN HIGH LEVEL ATHLETES WITH USE OF CONTEMPORARY DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA (GEORGIA)

The goal of training competitive athletes is to provide training loads that will improve performance. When prolonged, excessive training occurs concurrent with other stressors and insufficient recovery, performance decrement can result first in functional overreaching (FO), then extreme overreaching or non-functional overreaching (NFO) and overtraining. Chronic maladaptations may lead then to the overtraining syndrome (OTS). As it is possible to recover from functional overreaching within a period of 2 weeks, the recovery from NFO needs several weeks or even months. Athletes who suffer from OTS may need months or even years to completely recover (1). Early diagnostic of overreaching is of high importance for prevention of overtraining as well as for interruption of progression of NFO/OTS. The purpose of the study was detection of nonfunctional overreaching and overtraining with use of contemporary diagnostic criteria. Diagnosis of OTS was based on the checklist provided by the consensus statement of the European College of Sports Science (ECSS) and the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) (3). Examination of 348 high level athletes revealed 43 subjects with NFO/OTS, among them 37 with NFO and 6 athletes with OTS. Prevalence of NFO and OTS was seen in sporting disciplines with mixed high intensity workload-27(62,8%) NFO and 4 (9,3%) OTS, particularly, majority of NFO/OTS was revealed in wrestling: NFO – 19 (44,2%) and OTS – 4 (9,3%). Checklist criteria elaborated by ECSS and ACSM is efficient and flexible tool for diagnosing overreaching and overtraining in athletes. Most frequently NFO/OTS is seen in wrestling, which needs further investigation and regular medical monitoring.

Overtraining in Resistance Exercise: A Systematic Review and Methodological Appraisal of the Literature

Introduction: The balance between training stress and recovery is important for inducing adaptations to improve athletic performance, however overtraining can occur if resistance training is prescribed inappropriately. A comprehensive systematic review was required to collate overtraining literature and improve understanding of the mechanisms underlying functional overreaching (FOR), non-functional overreaching (NFOR) and the Overtraining Syndrome (OTS). The objective of this systematic review was to establish markers of overtraining and elucidate the mechanisms underlying maladaptive resistance training conditions. Furthermore, this review aims to appraise the methodological approaches of overtraining literature.