Functional Balance Measures Research Articles

Home-based multi-sensory and proximal strengthening program to improve balance in Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease Type 1A: A proof of concept study.

People with Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disease (CMT) frequently report problems with balance, which lead to an increased risk of falls. Evidence is emerging of training interventions to improve balance for people with CMT, but to date all have relied on clinic-based treatment and equipment. This proof-of-concept study explored whether a multi-modal program of proprioceptive rehabilitation and strength training can be delivered at home, to improve balance performance in people with CMT Type 1A. Fourteen participants with CMT Type 1A were recruited into this randomized, two-arm study. Baseline assessments included measures of disease severity, posturography, physical function, and patient-reported outcome measurements. All participants received one falls education session. Participants were randomized to either 12 weeks of balance training or 12 weeks of usual activities. The intervention comprised a home-based, multi-sensory balance training and proximal strengthening program, supported by three home visits from a physiotherapist. Thirteen participants completed the study. The intervention was successfully implemented and well tolerated, with high participation levels. Functional measures of balance and walking showed strong effect sizes in favor of the training group. Posturography testing demonstrated moderate improvements in postural stability favoring the intervention group. Inconsistent changes were seen in lower limb strength measures. The intervention was feasible to implement and safe, with some evidence of improvement in balance performance. This supports future studies to expand this intervention to larger trials of pragmatic, home-delivered programs through current community rehabilitation services and supported self-management pathways.

Comparison of the Ability of Static and Dynamic Balance Tests to Determine the Risk of Falls among Older Community-Dwelling Individuals

This study aimed to examine the validity of balance tests and compare their diagnostic accuracy to determine the risk of falls among older community-dwelling individuals. Eighty-five older participants were assessed based on their demographics and fall data. They were then assessed for the ability to perform balance measures, including five times sit-to-stand tests (FTSSTs), timed up and go tests (TUGs), three times stand and walk tests (TTSWs), functional reach tests (FRTs), and single-leg stance tests (SLSs). The correlation between fall data and balance measures was found to be significant for all parameters (p < 0.05). The TTSW showed the highest level of ability to indicate the risk of falls among older community-dwelling adults with sensitivity = 92.68%, specificity = 84.09%, and AUC = 0.931 (95%CI = 0.860 to 1.000). These findings confirm the benefits of the practical functional balance measures to determine the risk of falls among older community-dwelling individuals.

Clinical measures of balance and gait cannot differentiate somatosensory impairments in people with lower-limb amputation

BackgroundIn addition to a range of functional impairments seen in individuals with a lower-limb amputation, this population is at a substantially elevated risk of falls. Studies postulate that the lack of sensory feedback from the prosthetic limb contributes heavily to these impairments, but the extent to which sensation affects functional measures remains unclear. Research questionThe purpose of this study is to determine how sensory impairments in the lower extremities relate to performance with common clinical functional measures of balance and gait in individuals with a lower-limb amputation. Here we evaluate the effects of somatosensory integrity to clinical and lab measures of static, reactive and dynamic balance, and gait stability. MethodsIn 20 individuals with lower-limb amputation (AMP) and 20 age and gender-matched able-bodied controls (CON), we evaluated the effects of sensory integrity (pressure, proprioception, and vibration) on measures of balance and gait. Static, reactive, and dynamic balance were assessed using the Sensory Organization Test (SOT), Motor Control Test (MCT), and Functional Gait Assessment (FGA), respectively. Gait stability was assessed through measures of step length asymmetry and step width variability. Sensation was categorized into intact or impaired sensation by pressure thresholds and differences across groups were analyzed. ResultsThere were significant differences between AMP and CON groups for reliance on vision for static balance in the SOT, MCT, and FGA (p < 0.01). Despite differences across groups, there were no significant differences within the AMP group based on intact or impaired sensation across all functional measures. SignificanceDespite being able to detect differences between able-bodied individuals and individuals with an amputation, these functional measures cannot distinguish between levels of impairment within participants with an amputation. These findings suggest that more challenging and robust metrics are needed to evaluate the effects of sensation and function in individuals with an amputation.

Psychometric properties of performance-based measures of physical function administered via telehealth among people with chronic conditions: A systematic review.

Telehealth could enhance rehabilitation for people with chronic health conditions. This review examined the psychometric properties of performance-based measures of physical function administered via telehealth among people with chronic health conditions using the Consensus-Based Standards for the Selection of Health Measurement Instruments (COSMIN) approach. This systematic review was registered with Prospero (Registration number: CRD42021262547). Four electronic databases were searched up to June 2022. Study quality was evaluated by two independent reviewers using the COSMIN risk of bias checklist. Measurement properties were rated by two independent reviewers in accordance with COSMIN guidance. Results were summarised according to the COSMIN approach and the modified GRADE approach was used to grade quality of the summarised evidence. Five articles met the eligibility criteria. These included patients with Parkinson's Disease (n = 2), stroke (n = 1), cystic fibrosis (n = 1) and chronic heart failure (n = 1). Fifteen performance-based measures of physical function administered via videoconferencing were investigated, spanning measures of functional balance (n = 7), other measures of general functional capacity (n = 4), exercise capacity (n = 2), and functional strength (n = 2). Studies were conducted in Australia (n = 4) and the United States (n = 1). Reliability was reported for twelve measures, with all twelve demonstrating sufficient inter-rater and intra-rater reliability. Criterion validity for all fifteen measures was reported, with eight demonstrating sufficient validity and the remaining seven demonstrating indeterminate validity. No studies reported data on measurement error or responsiveness. Several performance-based measures of physical function across the domains of exercise capacity, strength, balance and general functional capacity may have sufficient reliability and criterion validity when administered via telehealth. However, the evidence is of low-very low quality, reflecting the small number of studies conducted and the small sample sizes included in the studies. Future research is needed to explore the measurement error, responsiveness, interpretability and feasibility of these measures administered via telehealth.

Defining Biological Phenotypes of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Using Saliva MicroRNA Profiles.

Concussion is a heterogeneous injury that relies predominantly on subjective symptom reports for patient assessment and treatment. Developing an objective, biological test could aid phenotypic categorization of concussion patients, leading to advances in personalized treatment. This prospective multi-center study employed saliva micro-ribonucleic acid (miRNA) levels to stratify 251 individuals with concussion into biological subgroups. Using miRNA biological clusters, our objective was to assess for differences in medical/demographic characteristics, symptoms, and functional measures of balance and cognition. The miRNAs that best defined each cluster were used to identify physiological pathways that characterized each cluster. The 251 participants (mean age: 18 ± 7 years; 57% male) were optimally grouped into 10 clusters based on 22 miRNA levels. The clusters differed in age (χ2 = 19.1, p = 0.024), days post-injury at the time of saliva collection (χ2 = 22.6; p = 0.007), and number of prior concussions (χ2 = 17.6, p = 0.040). The clusters also differed in symptom reports for fatigue (χ2 = 17.7; p = 0.039), confusion (χ2 = 22.3; p = 0.008), difficulty remembering (χ2 = 22.0; p = 0.009), and trouble falling asleep (χ2 = 17.2; p = 0.046), but not objective balance or cognitive performance (p > 0.05). The miRNAs that defined concussion clusters regulate 16 physiological pathways, including adrenergic signaling, estrogen signaling, fatty acid metabolism, GABAergic signaling, synaptic vesicle cycling, and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β signaling. These results show that saliva miRNA levels may stratify individuals with concussion based on underlying biological perturbations that are relevant to both symptomology and pharmacological targets. If validated in a larger cohort, miRNA assessment could aid individualized, biology-driven concussion treatment.

P80. The effect of scoliosis support orthosis bracing on adult spinal deformity patients: Evaluation of gait and dynamic balance

<h3>BACKGROUND CONTEXT</h3> Non-operative treatment is regarded as the first-line of therapy for patients with adult spinal deformity (ASD) without neurologic deficits or significant impairment. While there is high-level evidence supporting the use of rigid bracing in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis, there is a paucity of literature pertaining to the use of scoliosis support orthosis (SSO) in ASD patients. <h3>PURPOSE</h3> To investigate the impact of an SSO on pain, gait parameters, and functional balance measures in symptomatic ASD patients. <h3>STUDY DESIGN/SETTING</h3> Prospective cohort study. <h3>PATIENT SAMPLE</h3> Thirty ASD patients (26 Females, Age: 72.7, Cobb Angle: 47.1°) <h3>OUTCOME MEASURES</h3> Six-minute walk test, Time Up and Go test, 3D Gait analysis, Cone of Economy analysis, VAS, ODI, SRS22r, Fear Avoidance Beliefs Questionnaire (FABQ) [32], and Tampa Scale for Kinesiophobia (TSK). <h3>METHODS</h3> Thirty ASD patients were evaluated on 3 different occasions: first day of bracing: baseline (Pre), and 45-min post fitting (Post45m), and after 8-weeks of bracing for 4 hours a day (Post8w). Each patient performed a 6-minute walk (over-ground gait), a dynamic balance test, and completed VAS, ODI, and SRS22r. <h3>RESULTS</h3> Significant short- and long-term improvements using SSO were found in the 6-minute walk (Pre: 278.6; Post45m: 322.2; Post8w: 338.8 m, p<0.001), walking speed (Pre: 0.88; Post45m: 0.97; Post8w: 0.97 m/s, p<0.001), head total sway distance during the balance test (Pre: 81.33; Post45m: 68.63; Post8w: 60.72 cm, p=0.048), low-back pain (VAS: Pre: 5.5; Post45m: 3.5; Post8w: 3.3, p<0.001), and for the ODI (Pre: 41.9; Post45m: 32.9; Post8w: 30.1, p=0.005). <h3>CONCLUSIONS</h3> This study demonstrated clinically significant improvements in PROMs, spatiotemporal gait parameters and functional balance measures with the use of a SSO for patients with ASD. Some improvements were established immediately following brace fitting and many improvements were observed after wearing SSO for 8 weeks. In addition, this is the first SSO study for ASD to examine gait parameters and functional balance measures in order to understand the benefits of non-operative treatment from a functional and activity of daily living perspective. Based on the results of this study, it is reasonable to consider custom fitted SSO as a treatment option to provide a measurable degree of pain relief and improvement of function for patients with ASD, if the goals of treatment match the measured benefits demonstrated in our paper. Future studies are warranted to investigate if the observed benefits can be maintained over longer periods, possibly with reduced wear times for patients with ASD. <h3>FDA DEVICE/DRUG STATUS</h3> This abstract does not discuss or include any applicable devices or drugs.

95. Effect of spinal cord stimulation on balance and gait in failed back surgery syndrome patients

<h3>BACKGROUND CONTEXT</h3> While spine surgery can produce good outcomes in many patients, there are patients who do not benefit from the intervention and have conditions not thought not to be addressable by surgical intervention. These failed back surgery syndrome (FBSS) patients may be candidates for spinal cord stimulation (SCS) for pain management. While multiple studies have reported benefits of SCS related to pain reduction, improved quality of life, and reduced pain medication intake, there has been little investigation into measurable physical functional improvement in this population. <h3>PURPOSE</h3> The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of SCS on traditional self-reported pain and functional measures, the psychological parameter of kinesiphobia, as well as functional measures of balance and gait, in FBSS patients. <h3>STUDY DESIGN/SETTING</h3> Prospective repeated-measures design. <h3>PATIENT SAMPLE</h3> A total of 15 symptomatic FBSS patients eligible for SCS. <h3>OUTCOME MEASURES</h3> Outcome assessment was based on visual analog scales (VAS) for back and leg pain, Oswestry Disability index (ODI), Tampa Scale for Kinesiophobia (TSK) and functional testing components including balance, sway and gait. <h3>METHODS</h3> Patients completed patients reported outcomes and functional evaluations prior to the SCS trial procedure (Pre) and at 6 (Post6) and 12 (Post12) weeks after SCS implantation. Gait and balance were evaluated using 3D human motion capture and dynamic surface EMG. Balance effort and Cone of Economy (CoE) dimensions were as measured by total sway and range of sway (RoS), respectively. Repeated measurements and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to analyze data. <h3>RESULTS</h3> SCS implant significantly improved gait and balance in FBSS patients. The following gait parameters showerd significant improvement: Walking speed (Pre: 0.75, Post6: 0.86, Post12: 0.92 m/s, p<0.011), cadence (Pre: 85.42, Post6: 94.1, Post12: 95.94 steps/m, p<0.032), stride length (Pre: 0.98, Post6: 1.05, Post12: 1.07 m, p<0.049), and gait deviation index (GDI; Pre: 74.0, Post6: 83.2, Post12: 90.8, p<0.012). Additionally, significant improvements were seen in balance effort (head sway, Pre: 80.2, Post6: 52.2, Post12: 50.0 cm, p<0.049) sway dimensions as seen by reduced sagittal (p<0.047) and coronal (p<0.042) sway. For patient-reported outcomes, significant improvements were noted for VAS low back (Pre: 6.5, Post6: 3.6, Post12: 3.9, p<0.036), ODI (Pre: 57.6, Post6: 39.7, Post12: 38.3, p<0.006). Scores on the and TSK also improved significantly (p<0.044). <h3>CONCLUSIONS</h3> The results of this study support prior literature reporting significant improvement in pain and self-reported function reflected in VAS and ODI scores. Additionally, significant improvements were found post-SCS in gait and balance. The results suggest that SCS is associated not only with significant improvement in patient self-reported outcome measures, but also with physical functional testing. The patients included in this study showed more efficient gait patterns and improves balanced. This may be reflective of an overall improvement in activities of daily living following SCS implantation. <h3>FDA DEVICE/DRUG STATUS</h3> This abstract does not discuss or include any applicable devices or drugs.

The effect of scoliosis support orthosis bracing on adult spinal deformity patients: evaluation of gait and dynamic balance.

Non-operative treatment is regarded as the first-line therapy for patients with adult spinal deformity (ASD) without neurologic deficits or significant impairment. While there is high-level evidence supporting the use of rigid bracing in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis, there is a paucity of literature pertaining to the use of scoliosis support orthosis (SSO) in ASD patients. To investigate the impact of an SSO on pain, gait parameters, and functional balance measures in symptomatic ASD patients. Thirty ASD patients (26 Females, Age: 72.7, Cobb Angle: 47.1°) were evaluated on 3 different occasions: first day of bracing: baseline (Pre), and 45-min post fitting (Post45m), and after 8-weeks of bracing for 4 hours a day (Post8w). Each patient performed a 6-minute walk (over-ground gait), a dynamic balance test, and completed VAS, ODI, and SRS22r. Significant short- and long-term improvements using SSO were found in the 6-minute walk (Pre: 278.6; Post45m: 322.2; Post8w: 338.8 m, p<0.001), walking speed (Pre: 0.88; Post45m: 0.97; Post8w: 0.97 m/s, p<0.001), head total sway distance during the balance test (Pre: 81.33; Post45m: 68.63; Post8w: 60.72 cm, p=0.048), low-back pain (VAS: Pre: 5.5; Post45m: 3.5; Post8w: 3.3, p<0.001), and for the ODI (Pre: 41.9; Post45m: 32.9; Post8w: 30.1, p=0.005).This study demonstrated clinically significant improvements in PROMs, spatiotemporal gait measures, and functional balance measures after continuous use of a SSO. These improvements were observed immediately following brace-fitting and maintained at an 8-week follow-up. Given these results, it is reasonable to consider a SSO for conservative management of patients with mild symptoms of pain and deformity, and who have not yet progressed to meet surgical indications.

Evaluating Sensory Acuity as a Marker of Balance Dysfunction After a Traumatic Brain Injury: A Psychophysical Approach.

There is limited research on sensory acuity i.e., ability to perceive external perturbations via body-sway during standing in individuals with a traumatic brain injury (TBI). It is unclear whether sensory acuity diminishes after a TBI and if it is a contributing factor to balance dysfunction. The objective of this investigation is to first objectively quantify the sensory acuity in terms of perturbation perception threshold (PPT) and determine if it is related to functional outcomes of static and dynamic balance. Ten individuals with chronic TBI and 11 age-matched healthy controls (HC) performed PPT assessments at 0.33, 0.5, and 1 Hz horizontal perturbations to the base of support in the anterior-posterior direction, and a battery of functional assessments of static and dynamic balance and mobility [Berg balance scale (BBS), timed-up and go (TUG) and 5-m (5MWT) and 10-m walk test (10MWT)]. A psychophysical approach based on Single Interval Adjustment Matrix Protocol (SIAM), i.e., a yes-no task, was used to quantify the multi-sensory thresholds of perceived external perturbations to calculate PPT. A mixed-design analysis of variance (ANOVA) and post-hoc analyses were performed using independent and paired t-tests to evaluate within and between-group differences. Pearson correlation was computed to determine the relationship between the PPT and functional measures. The PPT values were significantly higher for the TBI group (0.33 Hz: 2.97 ± 1.0, 0.5 Hz: 2.39 ± 0.7, 1 Hz: 1.22 ± 0.4) compared to the HC group (0.33 Hz: 1.03 ± 0.6, 0.5 Hz: 0.89 ± 0.4, 1 Hz: 0.42 ± 0.2) for all three perturbation frequencies (p < 0.006 post Bonferroni correction). For the TBI group, the PPT for 1 Hz perturbations showed significant correlation with the functional measures of balance (BBS: r = −0.66, p = 0.037; TUG: r = 0.78, p = 0.008; 5MWT: r = 0.67, p = 0.034, 10MWT: r = 0.76, p = 0.012). These findings demonstrate that individuals with TBI have diminished sensory acuity during standing which may be linked to impaired balance function after TBI.

Functional Performance of Firefighters After Exposure to Environmental Conditions and Exercise.

Slips, trips, and falls are leading causes of musculoskeletal injuries in firefighters. Researchers have hypothesized that heat stress is the major contributing factor to these fireground injuries. To examine the effect of environmental conditions, including hot and ambient temperatures, and exercise on functional and physiological outcome measures, including balance, rectal temperature, and perceived exertion. Randomized controlled clinical trial. Laboratory environmental chamber. A total of 13 healthy, active career firefighters (age = 26 ± 6 years [range = 19-35 years], height = 178.61 ± 4.93 cm, mass = 86.56 ± 16.13 kg). Independent variables consisted of 3 conditions (exercise in heat [37.41°C], standing in heat [37.56°C], and exercise in ambient temperature [14.24°C]) and 3 data-collection times (preintervention, postintervention, and postrecovery). Each condition was separated from the others by at least 1 week and lasted a maximum of 40 minutes or until the participant reached volitional fatigue or a rectal temperature of 40.0°C. Firefighting-specific functional balance performance index, rectal temperature, and rating of perceived exertion. Exercise in the heat decreased functional balance, increased rectal temperature, and altered the perception of exertion compared with the other intervention conditions. A bout of exercise in a hot, humid environment increased rectal temperature in a similar way to that reported in the physically active population and negatively affected measures of functional balance. Rather than independently affecting balance, the factors of exercise and heat stress appeared to combine, leading to an increased likelihood of slips, trips, and falls.

The Effect of Surgical Decompression on Functional Balance Testing in Patients With Cervical Spondylotic Myelopathy.

A prospective cohort study. Quantify the extent of change in dynamic balance and stability in a group of patients with cervical spondylotic myelopathy (CSM) after cervical decompression surgery and to compare them with matched healthy controls. CSM is a naturally progressive degenerative condition that commonly results in loss of fine motor control in the hands and upper extremities and in gait imbalance. Whereas this was previously thought of as an irreversible condition, more recent studies are demonstrating postoperative improvements in balance and stability. Thirty subjects with symptomatic CSM and 25 matched asymptomatic controls between the ages of 45 and 75 years underwent functional balance testing using a 3D motion capture system to gather kinematic and spatiotemporal parameters. CSM subjects underwent testing 1 week before surgery and again 3 months postoperatively. Patients with CSM exhibited markedly diminished balance as indicated by increased sway on a Romberg test and requiring significantly more time and a wider stance to complete tandem gait tests. The surgical intervention resulted in improved balance at the 3-month postoperative time point; however, kinematic and spatiotemporal parameters did not completely normalize to the levels observed in asymptomatic controls. Human motion video capture can be used to robustly quantify balance parameters in the setting of CSM. Compared with healthy controls, such patients exhibited increased standing sway and poorer performance on a tandem gait task. The surgical intervention resulted in significant improvement in many of the measures of functional balance, but overall profiles had not completely returned to normal when measured 3 months after surgery. These data reinforce the importance of operative intervention in the treatment of symptomatic CSM with the goal of halting disease progress but the expectation that balance may actually improve postoperatively.

Minimal Detectable Change Scores For Measures of Functional Balance in Adolescents With Chronic Ankle Instability

Chronic Ankle Instability (CAI) is an issue that can affect individuals with a history of ankle sprains. Improving functional balance is one of the key goals in ankle rehabilitation programs. However, the threshold for defining a meaningful level of improvement for certain assessments has not been determined. PURPOSE: To establish the minimal detectable change (MDC) values for 2 different functional balance assessments in an active adolescent population with CAI. METHODS: Forty-three active adolescents with CAI (20 males and 23 females, 16±1 years, 171.75±12.05cm, 69.38±18.36kg). CAI inclusion criteria consisted of ankle sprain history, current symptoms of pain, weakness and instability and repeated episodes of giving-way. Participants completed 4-weeks of either strength training, balance board training, combination training (completion of both strength and balance board exercises) or no intervention. Dependent variables were pre and post-intervention scores for two measures of functional balance: side-hop test required participants to hop 30-centimeters medially/laterally for 10 repetitions and figure-of-8 hop test required participants to hop in a figure-of-8 pattern over a 5-meter distance for 2 repetitions. Both tests were completed twice on the involved leg. Hopping ability was measured in time to complete (seconds). A positive change score indicated improvement by a decrease in time needed to perform each test. The MDC with 95% confidence intervals was calculated for each variable [MDC = 1.96SD x (1-ICC)1/2 x (2)1/2]. RESULTS: Average pre and post-intervention scores were 12.55±4.51sec and 10.06±2.45sec for side-hop and 14.60±2.70sec and 13.00±1.80sec for figure-of-8 hop respectively. MDC was 2.60sec for both side-hop and figure-of-8 hop. These values reflect the minimal score necessary to be 95% confident that any measured change surpasses the statistical error associated with the test. Approximately 34.38% of the intervention participants had a clinically meaningful change of >2.60 seconds for side-hop test and 31.25% for figure-of-8 hop test. CONCLUSIONS: When these functional balance tests are used to detect beneficial changes from rehabilitation interventions, these MDC scores should be used as a minimum threshold to detect a true and clinically meaningful change.

Advanced virtual reality-based rehabilitation of balance and gait in clinical practice.

Background:Extensive research shows that virtual reality (VR) enhances motor learning and has advantages in balance and gait rehabilitation of neurological patients. There is still uncertainty, however, as for the practicality and efficacy of VR in long-term clinical routine. The objective of this study was to report on 3 years of clinical practice conducting VR-based rehabilitation of balance and gait in a large medical center.Methods:This retrospective study systematically analyzed clinical records of patients who received VR-based rehabilitation in a large rehabilitation center during 3 years. We evaluated the effect of VR-based rehabilitation treatments on balance and gait, cognitive dual-task load, patient’s balance confidence (ABC-scale) and perception of suitability. Patients were either neurological patients, allocated to five groups: Parkinson’s disease (PD), poststroke (PS), multiple sclerosis, traumatic brain injury, and ‘other conditions’, or non-neurological patients.Results:Records of 167 patients were analyzed. The availability of multiple VR systems and environments contributed to highly personalized interventions that tailored specific deficits with therapeutic goals. VR-based rehabilitation significantly improved balance and gait (measured by 10-Meter Walk Test, Timed-Up-and-Go, Berg Balance Scale, and Mini BESTest). Patients with PD and PS decreased dual-task cost while walking. Patients increased balance confidence and deemed VR suitable for rehabilitation.Conclusions:Our results suggest that VR-based rehabilitation is practicable and effective in clinical routine. Functional measures of balance and gait show significant improvements following VR-based interventions. Clinical approaches should exploit VR advantages for promoting motor learning and motivation. This study serves to aid transition to long-term clinical implementation of VR.

The Influence of Age and Adiposity on Functional Balance Performance in Career Firefighters

Slips, trips, and falls (STF) are one of the primary causes of non-fatal injuries in firefighters, incurring a large economic burden. Laboratory based measures of functional balance may help identify key risk factors for STF injuries. PURPOSE: The purpose of the current investigation is to examine the impact of age and adiposity [body mass index (BMI) and percent fat (%BF)] on a functional balance assessment in career firefighters. METHODS: Forty-nine healthy career firefighters (mean ± SD age = 35 ± 8 yrs; stature = 178.72 ± 7.99 cm; mass = 93.76 ± 21.85 kg; BMI = 29.11 ± 5.34 kg/m2; %BF = 25.22 ± 5.34%) volunteered to participate in this study. Data were collected over two separate visits. The first visit required participants to arrive to the laboratory following a four-hour fast prior to a dual energy x-ray absorptiometry scan to estimate %BF and be familiarized with the functional balance assessment. On the subsequent visit, participants completed the assessment for time while wearing their personal protective equipment and a self-contained breathing apparatus. The task required firefighters to step down from a raised platform, walk across a narrow beam, pass beneath an overhead obstacle (at 75% of their height), and step up to a final raised platform. The task was repeated while walking backwards as fast as possible. Each participant performed five trials that were digitally recorded to account for minor (i.e. foot contact with the ground) and major errors (i.e. overhead obstacle falls) with a minute rest between each to create a performance index (PI). Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were used to examine the relationship between PI and age, BMI, and %BF with an a priori alpha level set a P ≤ 0.05. RESULTS: There was a significant relationship between PI and age (r = 0.406; P = 0.004) and %BF (r = 0.401; P = 0.004), but not BMI (r = 0.242; P = 0.093). CONCLUSION: The results from the present study demonstrated that increased age and %BF were associated with poorer functional balance performance. These findings may highlight key risk factors that may contribute to an increased risk of STF injuries. Lastly, %BF may be a more sensitive measure of adiposity than BMI when identifying STF risk factors. GRANT FUNDING: National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (T42OH008673)

EP 117. 1000BRAINS study: Motor performance in the elderly – Not all parameters decline with age

It is known that motion patterns change with age ( Krampe, 2002 , Seidler, 2010 ). But is all motor performance in the elderly age-related and if not – which parameters contribute to the greater variance in elderly? The 1000BRAINS study in collaboration with the German Heinz Nixdorf Recall Study investigates structural and functional variability of the human brain during normal aging ( Caspers et al., 2014 ), enabling the analysis of various aspects of motor performance and its interaction with lifestyle and cognition in the identical large population. The aims of this study are to (1) measure objective parameters of motor performance, (2) analyze age dependency, and (3) investigate interactions with demographic and life style data. In the study 300 subjects (131 women, mean age 65.9 ± 6.1 years, range 56.4–85.4 years) were included. Within the motor test battery (MTB, see Caspers et al., 2014 ) upper limb functions were assessed by different finger tapping tasks and those of lower limb by functional measures of balance and mobility. Demographic and life style data were obtained by questionnaires. Exclusion criteria were more than one missing motor score, a history of central nervous system damage, musculoskeletal disorders or depression. Statistical analysis comprised a factor analysis on the MTB, based on z-scores, and correlation analysis (p 0.05; Bonferroni adjusted for number of factors). Factor analysis results in four main factors, extracted by Eigenvalues > 1, explaining 55.2% of the variance within the data (KMO criterion = 0.614): maximum hand speed (MHS), stability of stance (SOS), gross motor skills (GMS) and self-paced internal hand speed (IHS). Lower MHS factor values were associated with higher age, lower body height and lower educational level, more depressed mood and lower alcohol intake. Lower MHS and SOS factor values were related to lower falls-related self-efficacy. Higher education, lower age and body weight, better vibration sense, higher falls-related self-efficiency, higher physical activity and preserved ability to perform pedicure were associated with higher GMS factor loadings. IHS factor values showed no significant correlations. IHS is reflecting psychomotor speed and seems to be a stable property, varying only in the early and very late adulthood ( Turgeon and Wing, 2012 ). Higher MHS and GMS are associated with higher education, but not IHS and SOS. The relevance of education, a marker of reserve, is well known for cognition, but has only recently been addressed for motor performance (walking speed, Elbaz et al., 2013 ). Walking speed is also enclosed in GMS. The reserve hypothesis fits well to the association between education and MHS/ GMS. However, motor domains seem to interact differently with age and markers of reserve. The relation to brain structure and genetic data will be investigated in future studies.

Reducing falls among older people in general practice: The ProAct65+ exercise intervention trial

BackgroundFalls are common in the older UK population and associated costs to the NHS are high. Systematic reviews suggest that home exercise and group-based exercise interventions, which focus on progressively challenging balance and increasing strength, can reduce up to 42% of falls in those with a history of falls. The evidence is less clear for those older adults who are currently at low risk of falls. AimProAct65+, a large, cluster-randomised, controlled trial, investigated the effectiveness of a home exercise programme (Otago Exercise Programme (OEP)) and a group-based exercise programme (Falls Management Exercise (FaME)) compared to usual care (UC) at increasing moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This paper examines the trial’s secondary outcomes; the effectiveness of the interventions at reducing falls and falls-related injuries. Setting & participants1256 community-dwelling older adults (aged 65+) were recruited through GP practices in two sites (London and Nottingham). Frequent fallers (≥3 falls in last year) and those with unstable medical conditions were excluded, as were those already reaching the UK Government recommended levels of physical activity (PA) for health. MethodsBaseline assessment (including assessment of health, function and previous falls) occurred before randomisation; the intervention period lasted 24 weeks and there was an immediate post-intervention assessment; participants were followed up every six months for 24 months. Falls data were analysed using negative binomial modelling. Outcome measuresFalls data were collected prospectively during the intervention period by 4-weekly diaries (6 in total). Falls recall was recorded at the 3-monthly follow-ups for a total of 24 months. Balance was measured at baseline and at the end of the intervention period using the Timed Up & Go and Functional Reach tests. Balance confidence (CONFbal), falls risk (FRAT) and falls self-efficacy (FES-I) were measured by questionnaire at baseline and at all subsequent assessment points. Results294 participants (24%) reported one or two falls in the previous year. There was no increase in falls in either exercise group compared to UC during the intervention period (resulting from increased exposure to risk). The FaME arm experienced a significant reduction in injurious falls compared to UC (incidence rate ratio (IRR) 0.55, 95% CI 0.31, 0.96; p=0.04) and this continued during the 12 months after the end of the intervention (IRR 0.73, 95% CI 0.54, 0.99; p=0.05). There was also a significant reduction in the incidence of all falls (injurious and non-injurious) in the FaME arm compared with UC (IRR 0.74, 95% CI 0.55, 0.99; p=0.04) in the 12 month period following the cessation of the intervention. There was a non-significant reduction in the incidence of all falls in the OEP arm compared with UC (IRR 0.76, 95% CI 0.53, 1.09; p=0.14) in the 12 months following the cessation of the intervention. The effects on falls did not persist at the 24 months assessment in either exercise arm. However, when those in the FaME group who continued to achieve 150min of MVPA per week into the second post-intervention year were compared to those in the FaME group who did not maintain their physical activity, there was a significant reduction in falls incidence (IRR=0.49, 95% CI 0.30, 0.79; p=0.004). CONFbal was significantly improved at 12 months post intervention in both intervention arms compared with UC. There were no significant changes in any of the functional balance measures, FES-I or FRAT, between baseline and the end of the intervention period. ConclusionCommunity-dwelling older adults who joined an exercise intervention (FaME) aimed at increasing MVPA did not fall more during the intervention period, fell less and had fewer injurious falls in the 12 months after cessation of the intervention. However, 24 months after cessation of exercise, the beneficial effects of FaME on falls reduction ceased, except in those who maintained higher levels of MVPA. OEP exercise appears less effective at reducing falls in this functionally more able population of older adults.

The Effects of Pilates Training on Balance Control and Self-Reported Health Status in Community-Dwelling Older Adults: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

To evaluate the effect of a group-based Pilates training program on balance control and health status in healthy older adults. A single-blind, randomized, controlled trial. General community. A total of 88 community-dwelling older adults (age 71.15 ± 4.30 years), without evidence of functional balance impairment, were recruited and allocated at random to a Pilates intervention group (n = 44) or a control group (n = 44). The Pilates intervention group received 36 training sessions over three months (3 sessions a week), while the control group did not receive any intervention. Standing upright postural stability, performance-based measures of balance, and self-reported health status was assessed in both groups at baseline and at the end of the intervention period. Compared with the control group, the Pilates intervention did not improve postural stability, baseline functional measures of balance, or health status. The results suggest that because Pilates training is not task specific, it does not improve balance control or balance function in independent older adults.

Reliability and validity of the German short version of the Activities specific Balance Confidence (ABC-D6) scale in older adults

The Activities specific Balance Confidence (ABC) is a questionnaire which was developed to assess falls-associated self-efficacy. The aim of this study was to evaluate reliability and validity of the German abbreviated 6-item version of the ABC scores in community-dwelling older people. The study sample included 384 subjects (age 71.1±9.7). In order to determine the psychometric properties, reliability and validity were assessed through administration of the German adaptation of the ABC-D16 to participants twice, 10 days apart, and comparison of the ABC-D16 and the ABC-D6 with functional measures of balance and mobility (one-leg stance; 10m walk; TUG; Fullerton Advanced Balance Scale (FAB)), physical activity (Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly (PASE)), physical fitness (30s arm curl, 30s chair stand, 6min walk), cognition (Trail-Making-Test (TMT)), falls status, and quality of life (SF36). Factor analyses suggested a 1-factor solution for the ABC-D6 scale (explained variance 79.8%). Internal consistency (.95) and test-retest reliability (.98) for the ABC-D6 scores were excellent. Scores on the ABC-D6 were significantly lower than on the ABC-D16, but ABC-D16 and ABC-D6 scores were highly correlated (.94). There was an increasing difference in the ABC-scores between men and women with increasing age. Fallers reported lower balance confidence than non-fallers. The ABC-D6 score significantly correlated with functional measures of balance and mobility, physical activity, physical fitness, cognition, and quality of life (−.698<r<.720). It was found that the ABC-D6 is a reliable and valid instrument to asses falls-associated self-efficacy and may be used in future research projects and clinical trials.

Identifying balance and fall risk in community-dwelling older women: the effect of executive function on postural control.

The mechanisms linking cognition, balance function, and fall risk among older adults are not fully understood. An evaluation of the effect of cognition on balance tests commonly used in clinical practice to assess community-dwelling older adults could enhance the identification of at-risk individuals. The study aimed to determine (1) the association between cognition and clinical tests of balance and (2) the relationship between executive function (EF) and balance under single- and dual-task testing. Participants (24 women, mean age of 76.18 [SD 16.45] years) completed six clinical balance tests, four cognitive tests, and two measures of physical function. Poor balance function was associated with poor performance on cognitive testing of EF. In addition, the association with EF was strongest under the dual-task timed up-and-go (TUG) test and the Fullerton Advanced Balance Scale. Measures of global cognition were associated only with the dual-task performance of the TUG. Postural sway measured with the Standing Balance Test, under single- or dual-task test conditions, was not associated with cognition. Decreased EF was associated with worse performance on functional measures of balance. The relationship between EF and balance was more pronounced with dual-task testing using a complex cognitive task combined with the TUG.

Comparison of the Test-Retest Reliability of the Balance Computerized Adaptive Test and a Computerized Posturography Instrument in Patients With Stroke

ObjectiveTo compare the test-retest reliabilities of the scores of the Balance Computerized Adaptive Test (CAT) and the Biodex Balance System in patients with stroke. DesignA repeated-measures design (at a 1-wk interval) was used to examine the test-retest reliabilities of the scores of the Balance CAT and the Biodex Balance System. SettingOne rehabilitation unit in a local hospital. ParticipantsPatients (N=50) with stroke for more than 6 months and undergoing outpatient rehabilitation completed the Balance CAT and the eyes open (EO)/closed (EC) tests, but only 17 patients finished the Limit of Stability (LOS) test because they were unable to reach all the targets. InterventionsNot applicable. Main Outcome MeasuresThe Balance CAT and 2 computerized tests of the Biodex Balance System, namely the EO/EC test and the LOS, were used to evaluate balance function. ResultsThe test-retest reliabilities of the scores of the Balance CAT (Pearson r=.92, minimal detectable change [MDC] percent=12.8%) was excellent. Those of the EO/EC and LOS tests were poor to good (Pearson r=.56–.85, MDC%=50.8%–126.9%). ConclusionsThe test-retest reliabilities of the scores of the Balance CAT were sufficient for assessing balance function in patients with stroke. Moreover, the test-retest reliabilities of the scores of the Balance CAT, one of the functional balance measures, were superior to those of the Biodex Balance System, 1 type of computerized posturography instrument. Therefore, the Balance CAT may be a more reliable measure for clinicians and researchers to use in assessing the balance function of patients with stroke for more than 6 months.