Functional Green Infrastructure Research Articles

Integrating landscape ecology in urban green infrastructure planning: A multi-scale approach for sustainable development

In response to the growing global recognition of the need to achieve sustainable development, significant efforts are underway to actively integrate nature into the urban environment by implementing green infrastructure. However, due to rapid urban growth, there is a need for novel approaches that integrate ecological knowledge and methods into urban green infrastructure design and development. Traditionally, the planning of green infrastructures in large metropolises has primarily approached from a unique city scale perspective. Here, we advocate for a multi-scale approach, encompassing both spatial and temporal dimensions. This is because by considering space, time, and scale, it is possible to identify relevant elements and constraints at each level and integrate them in an overall solution.This paper combines methodologies and concepts derived from the fundamentals of landscape ecology and proposes their integration into the planning of functional green infrastructures within an urban context. We explore distinct strategies to integrate nature into large cities through three perspectives: urbanism, landscaping, and ecology. The approach used assumes the necessity of a multi-scale framework to establish an integrated and sustainable green system, exemplified by the case study of the city of Madrid (Spain).Considerable progress has been made in the planning of a green belt within Madrid city. However, this initiative has focused primarily on a large-scale, leading to a minimal impact on the city core. To address this limitation, the proposed solution employs a multi-scale approach. By developing a connected network, we aim to provide a comprehensive plan for the integration of green infrastructure throughout the whole urban area.

Assessment and Spatial Distribution of Urban Ecosystem Functions Applied in Two Czech Cities

As urban areas expand worldwide, the importance of ecosystem services provided by urban and peri-urban areas (ESs) increases, especially those that mitigate the effects of ongoing climate change. We present a relatively simple method to assess the performance of three ecosystem functions (EFs: evapotranspiration, carbon production, and habitat- and landscape-level biodiversity) in urban and peri-urban areas, indicating their capacity to provide relevant regulative ESs. The method was applied to two Czech foothill cities, Liberec and Děčín, and the results showed that the EFs of both cities were at comparable or even higher levels than the average values for the whole Czech Republic. The peri-urban area showed surprisingly high values for all EFs and habitat connectivity. The urban–rural gradient of EFs also showed higher values for EFs in the peri-urban area than in the adjacent rural (forest and agricultural) landscape. The method can serve as a useful tool to quickly identify valuable urban habitats (strong ESs providers) to support their protection or to identify places with low functional values that should be considered and sorted in urban adaptation strategies to global climate change to support the creation of functional green infrastructure.

Strengthening the Network of High Conservation Value Forests in Boreal Landscapes

The natural and old-growth forests and their associated biodiversity continues to fade worldwide due to anthropogenic impact in various forms. The boreal forests in Fennoscandia have been subject to intensive clearfelling forestry since the middle of twentieth century. As a result, only a fraction of forests with long temporal continuity remains at the landscape level. In Sweden, some of these primary forests have been formally protected, whereas other forests with known high conservation values are not. Collectively, both protected and not protected known valuable primary forests are included in a nationally delineated network of high conservation value forests (HCVF). In addition to HCVF, older forests that have not been clearfelled since the mid-1900s, i.e., “proxy continuity forests,” have recently been mapped across the entire boreal biome in Sweden. In this paper, we analyze how these proxy continuity forests may strengthen the HCVF network from a green infrastructure perspective. First, we evaluate the spatial overlap between proxy continuity forests and HCVF. Second, we perform a large-scale connectivity analysis, in which we show that adding proxy continuity forests located outside HCVF strongly increases the structural connectivity of the network of protected forests. Finally, by assessing habitat suitability for virtual species specialized in pine, spruce, and broadleaf forests, we find large regional differences in the ability to secure habitat and thereby functional green infrastructure by considering currently unprotected primary forest. We show that, by adding those forests to the network, the area of habitat for low-demanding species dependent on spruce or pine forests can be largely increased. For high-demanding species, additional habitat restoration in the landscape matrix is needed. By contrast, even counting all valuable broadleaf forests available is not enough to provide a suitable habitat for their associated species, which indicates a large need for landscape-scale habitat restoration initiatives, in particular, for broadleaf forests.

Maintaining natural and traditional cultural green infrastructures across Europe: learning from historic and current landscape transformations

ContextMaintaining functional green infrastructures (GIs) require evidence-based knowledge about historic and current states and trends of representative land cover types.ObjectivesWe address: (1) the long-term loss and transformation of potential natural forest vegetation; (2) the effects of site productivity on permanent forest loss and emergence of traditional cultural landscapes; (3) the current management intensity; and (4) the social-ecological contexts conducive to GI maintenance .MethodsWe selected 16 case study regions, each with a local hotspot landscape, ranging from intact forest landscapes, via contiguous and fragmented forest covers, to severe forest loss. Quantitative open access data were used to estimate (i) the historic change and (ii) transformation of land covers, and (iii) compare the forest canopy loss from 2000 to 2018. Qualitative narratives about each hotspot landscape were analysed for similarities (iv).ResultsWhile the potential natural forest vegetation cover in the 16 case study regions had a mean of 86%, historically it has been reduced to 34%. Higher site productivity coincided with transformation to non-forest land covers. The mean annual forest canopy loss for 2000–2018 ranged from 0.01 to 1.08%. The 16 case studies represented five distinct social-ecological contexts (1) radical transformation of landscapes, (2) abuse of protected area concepts, (3) ancient cultural landscapes (4) multi-functional forests, and (5) intensive even-aged forest management, of which 1 and 4 was most common.ConclusionsGIs encompass both forest naturalness and traditional cultural landscapes. Our review of Pan-European regions and landscapes revealed similarities in seemingly different contexts, which can support knowledge production and learning about how to sustain GIs.

Conservation significance of intact forest landscapes in the Scandinavian Mountains Green Belt

ContextAs forest harvesting remains high, there is a crucial need to assess the remaining large, contiguous and intact forests, regionally, nationally and globally.ObjectivesOur objective was to analyze the spatial patterns and structural connectivity of intact and primary forests in northern Sweden with focus on the Scandinavian Mountain region; one of the few remaining large European intact forest landscapes.MethodsOver 22 million ha with 14.5 million ha boreal and subalpine forest and with data consisting of a 60-70 year retrospective sequence, we analyzed distribution, density and connectivity of forests that have not been clear cut, using moving window and landscape analyzes derived from Circuitscape.ResultsWe revealed a contiguous, connected and semi-connected intact forest landscape forming a distinct Green Belt south to north along the mountain range. Almost 60% of the forestland remains intact, including contiguous clusters 10,000 ha and larger. The connectivity is particularly high in protected areas with primary forests outside contributing substantially to overall connectivity. We found gaps in connectivity in the southern parts, and furthermore low or absent connectivity across the whole inland and coastal areas of northern Sweden.ConclusionsGiven its ecological values, the Scandinavian Mountains Green Belt is a key entity supporting ecological legacies, boreal biodiversity and ecosystem services, resilience and adaptive capacity, which needs to be safeguarded for the future. On the very large areas outside the mountain region, forestlands are severely fragmented, connectivity values are lost, and forest landscape restoration is needed for conservation and functional green infrastructure.

Energy-Landscape Optimization for Land Use Planning. Application in the Barcelona Metropolitan Area

Rapid population growth and urban expansion in metropolitan areas have led to a dramatic increase in food demand. In most cases, urban sprawl occurs in unplanned ways, forcing peri-urban agriculture to adopt detrimental practices for biodiversity conservation and metabolic efficiency (i.e. landscape homogenization and dependence on non-renewable external inputs), facing the food-biodiversity dilemma. In order to ameliorate these negative effects over the metropolitan socioecological system, researchers have focused on developing comprehensive indicators to support sustainable urban expansion in metropolitan areas. In this paper, we use these indicators to develop an Energy-Landscape Optimization (E-LO), a nonlinear model designed for land use planning by means of considering biophysical constraints. Then, we test the model in a representative Mediterranean bio-cultural landscape in the Barcelona metropolitan area (Spain). The E-LO results allow us to propose different land use configurations for both conventional and organic agriculture, taking into account the associated socio-metabolic balances and the related landscape functional structures, with the aim to meet different societal objectives. We have fruitfully tested three settings: i) to increase conditions to host farm associated biodiversity, ii) to increase agricultural production, and iii) to minimize dependence on non-renewable external inputs. According to these socioecological objectives, we have obtained the best landscape-metabolism integration, which is a useful methodology for sustainable land use policy. This socioecological perspective is necessary for the new paradigm on agroecosystem management and landscape planning, and can help advancing towards functional green infrastructures in metropolitan areas, especially in the climate change and agroecological transition global context.

Development practices and ordinances predict inter-city variation in Florida urban tree canopy coverage

Many cities around the world have set ambitious urban tree canopy cover goals, with the expectation that urban forests will provide ecosystem services as functional green infrastructure. Numerous studies have examined intra-city spatial patterns in urban tree canopy (UTC) and found that UTC relates to socioeconomic indicators and urban form. Additionally, a few studies have shown local regulations can be linked to increased tree cover. However, the relationship between UTC and governance across different cities has not been well-explored. To address this gap, we compared the management practices enacted by 43 municipalities in Florida (United States) to investigate their potential impact on tree canopy coverage. UTC was assessed through visual interpretation of aerial images. We used multiple linear regression to predict inter-city variation in UTC based on 1) municipal forestry management practices, including whether the municipality had an arborist, tree ordinances, a municipal tree inventory, and a canopy cover goal, and 2) community sociodemographic data. UTC ranged between 17.6% and 63.3% among the municipalities assessed, with an average UTC of 33.7%. Two factors significantly predicted canopy coverage. Housing density had a negative relationship with tree canopy (P-value = 0.0116). In contrast, municipalities with heritage tree protections had 6.7% more canopy coverage (P-value = 0.0476). Future research should continue to consider the potential impacts of governance structures on the spatiotemporal dynamics of inter- and intra-city UTC patterns.

Landscape trajectory of natural boreal forest loss as an impediment to green infrastructure.

Loss of natural forests by forest clearcutting has been identified as a critical conservation challenge worldwide. This study addressed forest fragmentation and loss in the context of the establishment of a functional green infrastructure as a spatiotemporally connected landscape-scale network of habitats enhancing biodiversity, favorable conservation status, and ecosystem services. Through retrospective analysis of satellite images, we assessed a 50- to 60-year spatiotemporal clearcutting impact trajectory on natural and near-natural boreal forests across a sizable and representative region from the Gulf of Bothnia to the Scandinavian Mountain Range in northern Fennoscandia. This period broadly covers the whole forest clearcutting period; thus, our approach and results can be applied to comprehensive impact assessment of industrial forest management. The entire study region covers close to 46,000km2 of forest-dominated landscape in a late phase of transition from a natural or near-natural to a land-use modified state. We found a substantial loss of intact forest, in particular of large, contiguous areas, a spatial polarization of remaining forest on regional scale where the inland has been more severely affected than the mountain and coastal zones, and a pronounced impact on interior forest core areas. Salient results were a decrease in area of the largest intact forest patch from 225,853 to 68,714ha in the mountain zone and from 257,715 to 38,668ha in the foothills zone, a decrease from 75% to 38% intact forest in the inland zones, a decrease in largest patch core area (assessed by considering 100-m patch edge disturbance) from 6114 to 351ha in the coastal zone, and a geographic imbalance in protected forest with an evident predominance in the mountain zone. These results demonstrate profound disturbance of configuration of the natural forest landscape and disrupted connectivity, which challenges the establishment of functional green infrastructure. Our approach supports the identification of forests for expanded protection and conservation-oriented forest landscape restoration.

Wood production and biodiversity conservation are rival forestry objectives in Europe's Baltic Sea Region

AbstractThe policy term green infrastructure highlights the need to maintain functional ecosystems as a foundation for sustainable societies. Because forests are the main natural ecosystems in Europe, it is crucial to understand the extent to which forest landscape management delivers functional green infrastructures. We used the steep west–east gradient in forest landscape history, land ownership, and political culture within northern Europe's Baltic Sea Region to assess regional profiles of benefits delivered by forest landscapes. The aim was to support policy‐makers and planners with evidence‐based knowledge about the current conditions for effective wood production and biodiversity conservation. We developed and modeled four regional‐level indicators for sustained yield wood production and four for biodiversity conservation using public spatial data. The western case study regions in Sweden and Latvia had high forest management intensity with balanced forest losses and gains which was spatially correlated, thus indicating an even stand age class distribution at the local scale and therefore long‐term sustained yields. In contrast, the eastern case study regions in Belarus and Russia showed spatial segregation of areas with forest losses and gains. Regarding biodiversity conservation indicators, the west–east gradient was reversed. In the Russian, Belarusian, and Latvian case study regions, tree species composition was more natural than in Sweden, and the size of contiguous areas without forest loss was larger. In all four case study regions, 54–85% of the total land base consisted of forest cover, which is above critical fragmentation thresholds for forest landscape fragmentation. The results show that green infrastructures for wood production and biodiversity conservation are inversely related among the four case study regions, and thus rival. While restoration for biodiversity conservation is needed in the west, intensified use of wood and biomass is possible in the east. However, a cautious approach should be applied because intensification of wood production threatens biodiversity. We discuss the barriers and bridges for spatial planning in countries with different types of land ownership and political cultures and stress the need for a landscape approach based on evidence‐based collaborative learning processes that include both different academic disciplines and stakeholders that represent different sectors and levels of governance.

Conditions and opportunities for green infrastructure – Aiming for green, water-resilient cities in Addis Ababa and Dar es Salaam

In this paper we examine the conditions and opportunities for establishing a functional green infrastructure under the pressure of urbanization in Addis Ababa and Dar es Salaam. Inspired by transition theory, we look for regimes and niches which support retainment of green space and their adaptive capacity based on interviews and workshops with key urban stakeholders. A top-down master planning paradigm combined with a green institutional framework preoccupied with beautification seem to block possibilities of supporting and integrating GI experiments coming from outside the regime. The master plans are vague, outdated before finalised and inefficient for coping with the fast pace of urbanization. In Addis Ababa, despite an emergent recognition of the role of the green infrastructure in the city plan, informal encroachment and planned large scale land-conversions to housing takes place. In Dar es Salaam, that subscribes to, but lacks a functional master plan, the regime seems paralysed and is too fragmented and engrossed with the pressing urbanization problems to prioritize a green infrastructure. For establishing a functional green infrastructure coalition partners from housing, road and urban agriculture authorities but also large land owners, informal settlers, urban farmers and local organisations are needed. Solutions must be attractive also for the actual green space managers − the individual plot- and condominium owners and local groups. Local niche experiments linking up to on-going coping strategies could push forward coalitions as well as generating knowledge on how to retain green areas while addressing water shortages, livelihood and urban farming.

Green infrastructure maintenance is more than land cover: Large herbivores limit recruitment of key-stone tree species in Sweden

Due to anthropogenic alteration of stand composition and landscape pattern in Swedish forest landscapes managed for industrial wood production, remnant patches of deciduous forests and woodlands do not form a functional green infrastructure for biodiversity conservation. We assessed if large herbivore browsing hampers the restoration of deciduous forest as green infrastructure by reducing the recruitment of boreal and temperate deciduous tree species of particular importance for biodiversity conservation. A natural experiment approach was applied in the distinct Swedish temperate-boreal forest gradient in Sweden. We measured the potential for saplings of aspen, rowan, sallow and oak to become recruited into the population of ecologically mature trees, as well as the amount of tree and field layer food. Sampling was made in forest stands representing four strata of managed forest landscapes accessible to large herbivores (experiment) and human settlements avoided by large herbivores (control). All four focal deciduous tree species had lower damage levels in controls (towns and villages) compared to experimental (forest) sites. While tree forage was much more abundant in controls, field layer forage in controls was not different from experimental stands. For all tree species except aspen we found a positive relationship between damage levels and large herbivore abundance, to which moose contributed >89%. We discuss the role of research design for assessing the impact of large herbivores on plants, and highlight the need for integration of multi-species wildlife management as well as conservation planning and management.

Gap analysis as a basis for strategic spatial planning of green infrastructure: a case study in the Ukrainian Carpathians

ABSTRACTIncreased demand for natural resources and economic transition threaten natural and biocultural capital and thus ecosystem services for human well-being. We applied an evidence-based approach to strategic planning of functional green infrastructure in a European biodiversity hotspot: the Ukrainian Carpathian Mountains. We (1) described how potential natural vegetation types have been transformed, (2) applied evidence-based critical thresholds for each potential natural vegetation land cover, (3) measured how much of the potential natural vegetation land covers are protected, and (4) estimated the area of cultural landscapes that emerged. While only 2% of lowland land cover types were left, 55% of mountain forests and 94% of alpine land covers remained. Many mountain forests were transformed to valuable cultural landscapes. Beech and oak forests covered 42% of the study area but at low levels of protection (<5%). The highest protection level (12–17%) was in mixed beech–fir–spruce and in spruce forests. However, taking connectivity into account, only alpine land covers formed a functional habitat network. More areas need to be protected and planned to build a functional green infrastructure. Traditional village systems with biocultural values need support. We discuss how strategic analyses can encourage collaborative spatial planning and international development cooperation.

Governance and management dynamics of landscape restoration at multiple scales: Learning from successful environmental managers in Sweden

Due to a long history of intensive land and water use, habitat networks for biodiversity conservation are generally degraded in Sweden. Landscape restoration (LR) is an important strategy for achieving representative and functional green infrastructures. However, outcomes of LR efforts are poorly studied, particularly the dynamics of LR governance and management. We apply systems thinking methods to a series of LR case studies to analyse the causal structures underlying LR governance and management in Sweden. We show that these structures appear to comprise of an interlinked system of at least three sets of drivers and four core processes. This system exhibits many characteristics of a transformative change towards an integrated, adaptive approach to governance and management. Key challenges for Swedish LR projects relate to institutional and regulatory flexibility, the timely availability of sufficient funds, and the management of learning and knowledge production processes. In response, successful project leaders develop several key strategies to manage complexity and risk, and enhance perceptions of the attractiveness of LR projects.

Wet Grasslands as a Green Infrastructure for Ecological Sustainability: Wader Conservation in Southern Sweden as a Case Study

Biosphere Reserves aim at being role models for biodiversity conservation. This study focuses on the unsuccessful conservation of waders (Charadrii) on wet grasslands in the Kristianstad Vattenrike Biosphere Reserve (KVBR) in southern Sweden. Predation on nests and young has been proposed as one reason contributing to the decline of waders. We explored this hypothesis by comparing two landscapes, one with declining (KVBR) and one with stable (Östergötland) wader populations on managed wet grasslands in southern Sweden. Specifically, we tested three predictions linked to predation on wader nests and young, namely that (1) the relative abundance of avian predators and waders; (2) the avian predator abundance; and (3) the predation rate on artificial wader nests, should all be higher in declining versus stable populations. All predictions were clearly supported. Nevertheless, predation may not be the ultimate factor causing wader population declines. We discuss the cumulative effects of landscape change linked to increased food resources for predators, reduced wet grassland patch size and quality. Holistic analyses of multiple wet grassland landscapes as social-ecological systems as case studies, including processes such as predation and other factors affecting waders, is a promising avenue towards collaborative learning for wet grasslands as a functional green infrastructure. However, if governance and management approaches can be improved is questionable without considerable investment in both ecological and social systems.

The role of forest certification for biodiversity conservation: Lithuania as a case study

The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) forest certification system is a globally widespread market-driven mechanism that aims at responsible use and governance of forests, and its application is growing. However, the extent to which forest certification contributes effectively to maintaining forest biodiversity is an unresolved issue. We assessed the role of FSC certification for forest biodiversity conservation in Lithuania’s state forests. First, we analysed the indicators related to biodiversity conservation at different spatial scales in the FSC standard used in Lithuania. By applying morphological spatial pattern analysis and habitat suitability modelling, we explored the structural and functional connectivity of forest habitat patches of formally and voluntarily set-asides for biodiversity conservation. According to the Lithuanian FSC standard, active measures in forest management for biodiversity should be imposed at three spatial scales: ‘trees in a stand’, ‘stands in a landscape’, and ‘landscape in an ecoregion’. The total area set aside for biodiversity was 18.6 %, including 4.9 % voluntary set-asides. The quality of habitats in terms of forest stand age was low, only 9.4 % of all set-asides constituted older forests. The proportions of voluntary set-aside area varied among the different state forest enterprises, and the results indicated a clear trend to set aside non-forest or low productivity forest habitats. Small (<1 ha) habitat patches formed a major part of all set-asides, including formally protected areas. FSC certification alone was not able to maintain structural and functional connectivity of forests for species at multiple spatial scales in Lithuania. By keeping a minimum standard of 5 % forestland set aside for biodiversity, the state forest enterprises certified according to the FSC can only satisfy forest species with small habitat requirements. To maintain biodiversity, place-based learning among stakeholders for representative functional green infrastructures in concrete landscapes and regions, combined with transparent knowledge about the net effect of pressures and responses on the state of biodiversity, are necessary.

Rationale for the increased use of conifers as functional green infrastructure: A literature review and synthesis

Green infrastructure is the aggregate of plants and green spaces in the urban landscape. This infrastructure provides many benefits that are becoming increasingly valuable as municipalities strive for urban sustainability. The value of the urban forest is an integral part of securing funding and support for urban forestry initiatives: the higher the value the more support is gained, and benefits accrued. According to available data from street tree inventories, most species that make up street trees in urban forests in the United States and Canada are broadleaf, deciduous species. Since many urban tree benefits are attributed to the tree canopies, benefits effectively drop to negligible levels during the leaf-off period. When a rain event occurs during this season, the canopy cover afforded by evergreen tree species, in concert with the canopy architecture and density of evergreen conifers will help to maintain canopy-dependent benefits. This paper investigates the role that conifers play in increasing the canopy-dependent ecosystem services of an urban forest and the unique role they play in increasing the stability of the urban forest through diversification.

Green infrastructures and intensive forestry: Need and opportunity for spatial planning in a Swedish rural–urban gradient

There is a current industrial and societal interest in Europe to further intensify the yield of wood for the forest industry and biomass. At the same time, green infrastructures for ecological and sociocultural values in forest landscapes should be functional. Municipalities have exclusive responsibility for comprehensive planning in Sweden. We modelled the spatial distribution of green infrastructures in terms of three forest types with high ecological values, and three sociotopes with high sociocultural values in 119 municipalities in a rural–urban gradient in Sweden. Forest land without such values should be available for intensive forestry with lower conflict risk. We also estimated the municipalities' potential for physical planning in terms of financial and social capital, and ownership category structure. The area of functional green infrastructures varied considerably among municipalities. Municipalities with a high proportion of functional green infrastructure, thus less available for intensive forestry, were characterised by a stronger tax base, higher population density and lower demographic dependency ratio, and lower proportions of industrial and state forest ownership. We discuss the need for and opportunities of introducing collaborative physical planning to accommodate multiple demands on forest landscapes. We conclude that to accommodate both functional green infrastructures and intensive forestry, a landscape approach including knowledge-based collaboration is needed at multiple-levels of governance and management.