Functions Of Volatile Organic Compounds Research Articles

Volatile-mediated signalling in barley induces metabolic reprogramming and resistance against the biotrophic fungus Blumeria hordei.

Plants have evolved diverse secondary metabolites to counteract biotic stress. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are released upon herbivore attack or pathogen infection. Recent studies suggest that VOCs can act as signalling molecules in plant defence and induce resistance in distant organs and neighbouring plants. However, knowledge is lacking on the function of VOCs in biotrophic fungal infection on cereal plants. We analysed VOCs emitted by 13 ± 1-day-old barley plants (Hordeum vulgare L.) after mechanical wounding using passive absorbers and TD-GC/MS. We investigated the effect of pure VOC and complex VOC mixtures released from wounded plants on the barley-powdery mildew interaction by pre-exposure in a dynamic headspace connected to a powdery mildew susceptibility assay. Untargeted metabolomics and lipidomics were applied to investigate metabolic changes in sender and receiver barley plants. Green leaf volatiles (GLVs) dominated the volatile profile of wounded barley plants, with (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate (Z3HAC) as the most abundant compound. Barley volatiles emitted after mechanical wounding enhanced resistance in receiver plants towards fungal infection. We found volatile-mediated modifications of the plant-pathogen interaction in a concentration-dependent manner. Pre-exposure with physiologically relevant concentrations of Z3HAC resulted in induced resistance, suggesting that this GLV is a key player in barley anti-pathogen defence. The complex VOC mixture released from wounded barley and Z3HAC induced e.g. accumulation of chlorophyll, linolenic acid and linolenate-conjugated lipids, as well as defence-related secondary metabolites, such as hordatines in receiving plants. Barley VOCs hence induce a complex physiological response and disease resistance in receiver plants.

Defensive functions of volatile organic compounds and essential oils from northern white-cedar in China

BackgroundPlants are known to emit diverse volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which may function as signaling substances in plant communication with other organisms. Thuja occidentalis, which is widely cultivated throughout China, releases aromatic VOCs into the air in winter and early spring. The relationship of this cultivated plant with its neighboring plants is necessary for the conservation of biodiversity.Results(−)-α-thujone (60.34 ± 5.58%) was found to be the major component in VOCs from the Shenyang population. The essential oils (EOs) from the Kunming and Shenyang populations included the major components (−)-α-thujone, fenchone, (+)-β-thujone, and (+)-hibaene, identified using GC-MS analyses. (−)-α-thujone and (+)-hibaene were purified and identified by NMR identification. EOs and (−)-α-thujone exhibited valuable phytotoxic activities against seed germination and seedling growth of the plants Taraxacum mongolicum and Arabidopsis thaliana. Moreover, the EOs displayed potent inhibitory activity against pathogenic fungi of maize, including Fusarium graminearum, Curvularia lunata, and Bipolaris maydis, as well as one human fungal pathogen, Candida albicans. Quantitative analyses revealed high concentrations of (−)-α-thujone in the leaves of T. occidentalis individuals from both the Shenyang and Kunming populations. However, (−)-α-thujone (0.18 ± 0.17 μg/g) was only detected in the rhizosphere soil to a distance of 0.5 m from the plant.ConclusionsTaken together, our results suggest that the phytotoxic effects and antifungal activities of the EOs and (−)-α-thujone in T. occidentalis certainly increased the adaptability of this plant to the environment. Nevertheless, low concentrations of released (−)-α-thujone indicated that reasonable distance of T. occidentalis with other plant species will impair the effects of allelochemical of T. occidentalis.

A non-invasive soil-based setup to study tomato root volatiles released by healthy and infected roots

The role of root exudates in mediating plant–microbe interactions has been well documented. However, the function of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by plant roots has only recently begun to attract attention. This newly recognized relevance of belowground VOCs has so far mostly been tested using systems limited to a two-compartment Petri-dish design. Furthermore, many of the plant–microbe interaction studies have only investigated the effects of microbial VOCs on plant growth. Here, we go two steps further. First we investigated the volatile profile of healthy and pathogen (Fusarium oxysporum) infected tomato roots grown in soil. We then used a unique soil-based olfactometer-choice assay to compare the migration pattern of four beneficial bacteria (Bacillus spp.) towards the roots of the tomato plants. We demonstrate that the blend of root-emitted VOCs differs between healthy and diseased plants. Our results show that VOCs are involved in attracting bacteria to plant roots.

Nitrogen Deprivation-Induced Production of Volatile Organic Compounds in the Arachidonic-Acid-Accumulating Microalga Lobosphaera incisa Underpins Their Role as ROS Scavengers and Chemical Messengers

The green microalga Lobosphaera incisa accumulates long-chain polyunsaturated arachidonic acid sequestered in triacylglycerols under nitrogen (N)-starvation conditions. Many of L. incisa’s physiological and metabolic responses to N-starvation have been previously investigated. However, the temporal dynamics of the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) under different N availability and their role in L. incisa stress responses have yet to be elucidated. Here, we investigated the VOC profiles of L. incisa to reveal their emission patterns, and proposed their physiological roles under N-starvation. Using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, 42 and 19 VOCs were identified in the algal biomass (AVOCs) and in the medium (MVOCs), respectively, belonging to alkanes, alkenes, benzenoids, esters, fatty alcohols, fatty aldehydes, fatty acids (FAs), FA esters, ketones, and terpenoids; most of these are the oxidative products of FAs or photosynthetic pigment degradation. The discriminant AVOCs and MVOCs produced under N-starvation were identified by principal component analyses and hierarchical clustering. A significant treatment- and time-dependent increase in volatile FAs and their oxidative products was observed in the algal biomass and medium under N-starvation as compared to N-replete controls, following a similar pattern as reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. This suggests that VOCs may be involved in ROS scavenging. Despite the increase in total VOCs, terpenoids and alkenes decreased significantly with N-starvation duration, along with chloroplast degradation. Transcriptomic data supported the VOC patterns and revealed the upregulation of genes involved in fatty aldehyde, fatty alcohol, and ketone synthesis, including lipoxygenase, thioesterase, and fatty acyl CoA reductase, along with a decrease in the expression of genes putatively implicated in alkene biosynthesis. Several VOCs were identified as potential biotechnological targets, and their putative biosynthetic pathways were proposed, which could be genetically manipulated to enhance the yields of high value products. We conclude that VOCs may play an important role in stress metabolism, ROS scavenging, and the amelioration of oxidative stress under N-starvation. Also, VOCs released in the medium may communicate the signal to neighboring cells, thus priming them to adjust their metabolic activities to adapt to N-starvation conditions, indicating that the function of VOCs as chemical signaling messengers is conserved from microalgae to higher plants.

Microbial Volatiles: Small Molecules with an Important Role in Intra- and Inter-Kingdom Interactions.

During the last decades, research on the function of volatile organic compounds focused primarily on the interactions between plants and insects. However, microorganisms can also release a plethora of volatiles and it appears that microbial volatile organic compounds (mVOCs) can play an important role in intra- and inter-kingdom interactions. So far, most studies are focused on aboveground volatile-mediated interactions and much less information is available about the function of volatiles belowground. This minireview summarizes the current knowledge on the biological functions of mVOCs with the focus on mVOCs-mediated interactions belowground. We pinpointed mVOCs involved in microbe-microbe and microbe–plant interactions, and highlighted the ecological importance of microbial terpenes as a largely underexplored group of mVOCs. We indicated challenges in studying belowground mVOCs-mediated interactions and opportunities for further studies and practical applications.

Diversity and functions of volatile organic compounds produced by Streptomyces from a disease-suppressive soil

In disease-suppressive soils, plants are protected from infections by specific root pathogens due to the antagonistic activities of soil and rhizosphere microorganisms. For most disease-suppressive soils, however, the microorganisms and mechanisms involved in pathogen control are largely unknown. Our recent studies identified Actinobacteria as the most dynamic phylum in a soil suppressive to the fungal root pathogen Rhizoctonia solani. Here we isolated and characterized 300 isolates of rhizospheric Actinobacteria from the Rhizoctonia-suppressive soil. Streptomyces species were the most abundant, representing approximately 70% of the isolates. Streptomyces are renowned for the production of an exceptionally large number of secondary metabolites, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs). VOC profiling of 12 representative Streptomyces isolates by SPME-GC-MS allowed a more refined phylogenetic delineation of the Streptomyces isolates than the sequencing of 16S rRNA and the house-keeping genes atpD and recA only. VOCs of several Streptomyces isolates inhibited hyphal growth of R. solani and significantly enhanced plant shoot and root biomass. Coupling of Streptomyces VOC profiles with their effects on fungal growth, pointed to VOCs potentially involved in antifungal activity. Subsequent assays with five synthetic analogs of the identified VOCs showed that methyl 2-methylpentanoate, 1,3,5-trichloro-2-methoxy benzene and the VOCs mixture have antifungal activity. In conclusion, our results point to a potential role of VOC-producing Streptomyces in disease suppressive soils and show that VOC profiling of rhizospheric Streptomyces can be used as a complementary identification tool to construct strain-specific metabolic signatures.

Volatile organic compounds in the strongly fragrant fern genus Melpomene (Polypodiaceae).

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are common among plants, both as attractants for pollinators and as defence against herbivores. While much studied among flowering plants, the prevalence and function of VOCs among ferns is little known. Using headspace sorption and gas chromatography, we analysed the VOCs of dried specimens of six species of grammitid fern (Polypodiaceae), including two species of the genus Melpomene, which is characterised by a distinctive sweet smell. We identified 38 VOCs, including 22 not previously recorded among ferns. The two species of Melpomene had distinct VOC cocktails, including 12 substances not found in the other four studied genera, mainly involving fatty acid derivatives (FADs) and aromatics. We propose that these VOCs have, at least in part, a function in herbivore defence, but note that the VOC bouquet of Melpomene is distinct from that typically found in angiosperms.

Acetic acid-induced programmed cell death and release of volatile organic compounds in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Acetic acid widely spreads in atmosphere, aquatic ecosystems containing residues and anoxic soil. It can inhibit aquatic plant germination and growth, and even cause programmed cell death (PCD) of yeast. In the present study, biochemical and physiological responses of the model unicellular green algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii were examined after acetic acid stress. H(2)O(2) burst was found in C. reinhardtii after acetic acid stress at pH 5.0 for 10 min. The photosynthetic pigments were degraded, gross photosynthesis and respiration were disappeared gradually, and DNA fragmentation was also detected. Those results indicated that C. reinhardtii cells underwent a PCD but not a necrotic, accidental cell death event. It was noticed that C. reinhardtii cells in PCD released abundant volatile organic compounds (VOCs) upon acetic acid stress. Therefore, we analyzed the VOCs and tested their effects on other normal cells. The treatment of C. reinhardtii cultures with VOCs reduced the cell density and increased antioxidant enzyme activity. Therefore, a function of VOCs as infochemicals involved in cell-to-cell communication at the conditions of applied stress is suggested.

Study of ozone “weekend effect” in Shanghai

Analysis of observed ozone data in 2006 from five monitoring sites (Xujiahui, Chongming, Baoshan, Pudong, Jinshan) in Shanghai reveals that ozone (O3) concentrations in Xujiahui are higher at weekends than those on weekdays, despite the fact that emissions of ozone precursor substances, such as oxides of nitrogen (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are lower at weekends than those on weekdays. The possible chemical cause of ozone “weekend effect” is that NO2/NO ratio increases at weekends by 25.61% compared with those on weekdays. In addition, because of an average 12.13% reduction in NOx (NO + NO2) in the early morning (05:00–09:00) at weekends compared with that on weekdays, the ozone inhibition period ends 0.5 h earlier at weekends resulting in the longer duration of ozone accumulation and the higher ozone production rate. The rate of ozone production is a function of VOCs and NOx in the atmosphere. VOCs/NOx ratio in Xujiahui is 4.55 at weekends, and 4.37 on weekdays, belonging to the “NOx-limited”. The increasing VOCs/NOx ratio at weekends leads to ozone enhancement from 73 ppbv to 80 ppbv, which are consistent with ozone “weekend effect” in Xujiahui. Furthermore, combining with MICAPS cloud amount data, the fact that ozone “weekend effect” in Xujiahui weakens gradually along with the increasing of cloud amount indicates that ozone photochemical production leads to ozone “weekend effect” in Xujiahui of Shanghai.

Defense-Inducing Volatiles: In Search of the Active Motif

Herbivore-induced volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are widely appreciated as an indirect defense mechanism since carnivorous arthropods use VOCs as cues for host localization and then attack herbivores. Another function of VOCs is plant–plant signaling. That VOCs elicit defensive responses in neighboring plants has been reported from various species, and different compounds have been found to be active. In order to search for a structural motif that characterizes active VOCs, we used lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus), which responds to VOCs released from damaged plants with an increased secretion of extrafloral nectar (EFN). We exposed lima bean to (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate, a substance naturally released from damaged lima bean and known to induce EFN secretion, and to several structurally related compounds. (E)-3-hexenyl acetate, (E)-2-hexenyl acetate, 5-hexenyl acetate, (Z)-3-hexenylisovalerate, and (Z)-3-hexenylbutyrate all elicited significant increases in EFN secretion, demonstrating that neither the (Z)-configuration nor the position of the double-bond nor the size of the acid moiety are critical for the EFN-inducing effect. Our result is not consistent with previous concepts that postulate reactive electrophile species (Michael-acceptor-systems) for defense-induction in Arabidopsis. Instead, we postulate that physicochemical processes, including interactions with odorant binding proteins and resulting in changes in transmembrane potentials, can underlie VOCs-mediated signaling processes.

Ecological functions of volatile organic compounds in aquatic systems

In terrestrial ecosystems, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are widely acknowledged as an important group of infochemicals. They play a major role in pollinator attraction by terrestrial plants and as insect pheromones. Furthermore, they are the mediating agent of so-called ‘tritrophic interactions’. When plants are attacked by herbivorous insects, volatile signal substances are emitted, which act as attractants for parasitoids that kill the herbivores, thereby protecting the plant from herbivory. Despite the generally acknowledged importance of VOCs in terrestrial chemical ecology, their functions in aquatic food webs are largely unknown. VOCs produced by algae and cyanobacteria are a major concern in water processing, since aquatic primary producers are the reason for regularly encountered taste and odour problems in drinking water. Only very recently, research in aquatic chemical ecology has started to investigate possible ecological functions for the production of VOCs by algae and cyanobacteria. Volatile aldehydes released by wounded cells of marine planktonic diatoms seem to act as defensive compounds against herbivorous copepods on the population level. Just recently, it was found that VOCs released from benthic algae and cyanobacteria can be utilised as food and/or habitat finding cues by aquatic invertebrates such as freshwater gastropods and nematodes. Here, I review concepts and recent experimental studies on the ecological functions of such VOCs in aquatic ecosystems. Understanding the factors that lead to the liberation of volatile compounds is an essential prerequisite to properly assessing their ecological functions. It appears that (similar to terrestrial plant–herbivore interactions) VOCs can also play a steering role for both attraction and defence in aquatic ecosystems.