Full Tracing Research Articles

Combined volume and surface rendering with global illumination caching

We present a combined volume and surface rendering technique with global illumination caching. Our approach uses volumetric path tracing to compute the global illumination volume and local shading models for rendering the isosurface. By joining both visualization approaches, we have enhanced the display and illumination of the surfaces while preserving physically realistic illumination of the participating media. To achieve real-time performance and avoid recomputing the image when the camera view changes, we compute the global illumination volume incrementally and defer the projection to a later step. We evaluated our technique by comparing different local shading models for isosurface rendering with the result of full volumetric path tracing and with the non-caching variant of our technique. Results show that the caching and non-caching variants perform comparably well, while the caching variant has the added benefit of being camera-view-independent. Additionally, we show that our approach emphasizes the surfaces within volumes better than volumetric path tracing.

On Dynamic Ray Tracing and Anticipative Channel Prediction for Dynamic Environments

Ray tracing algorithms, that can simulate multipath radio propagation in presence of geometric obstacles such as buildings, objects or vehicles, are becoming quite popular, due to the increasing availability of digital environment databases and high-performance computation platforms, such as multi-core computers and cloud computing services. When objects or vehicles are moving, which is the case of industrial or vehicular environments, multiple successive representations of the environment ("snapshots") and multiple ray tracing runs are often necessary, which require a great human effort and a great deal of computation resources. Recently, the Dynamic Ray Tracing (DRT) approach has been proposed to predict the multipath evolution within a given time lapse on the base of the current multipath geometry, assuming constant speeds and/or accelerations for moving objects, using analytical extrapolation formulas. This is done without re-running a full ray tracing for every "snapshot" of the environment, therefore with a great reduction in both human labour and computation time. When DRT is embedded in a mobile radio system and used in real-time, ahead-of-time (or anticipative) field prediction is possible that opens the way to interesting applications. In the present work, a full-3D DRT algorithm is presented that allows to account for multiple reflections, edge diffraction and diffuse scattering for the general case where moving objects can translate and rotate. For the purpose of validation, the model is first applied to some ideal cases and then to realistic cases where results are compared with conventional ray tracing simulation and measurements available in the literature.

Modeled impacts of rapid and accurate cattle tracing in a Foot-and-Mouth Disease outbreak in the US

The purpose of this study was to estimate the impacts of rapid and accurate tracing of cattle movements during a Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) outbreak in the United States (US). To simulate introduction and spread of FMD we utilized InterSpread Plus, a spatially explicit disease transmission model, and a national livestock population file. The simulations began in one of four regions of the US via beef or dairy cattle as the index infected premises (IP). The first IP was detected 8, 14, or 21 days after introduction. The tracing levels were defined by the probability of a successful trace and the time to trace completion. We evaluated three tracing performance levels, a baseline that represents a mix of paper and electronic interstate shipment records, an estimated partial implementation of electronic identification (EID) tracing, and an estimated full implementation of EID tracing. To evaluate the potential to decrease the size of control areas and surveillance zones with full EID use, we compared the standard size for each to a reduced geographical area for each. The total number of IPs in an outbreak varied with the location of the index farms. Within index farm locations and across tracing performance levels, early detection (day 8) resulted in fewer IPs and a shorter duration of the outbreak. The impact of improving tracing was most evident within introduction region when detection was delayed (day 14 or 21). Full EID use decreased the 95th percentile but had a smaller impact on the median number of IPs. Improved tracing also decreased the number of farms impacted by control efforts in control areas (0–10 km) and surveillance zones (10–20 km) by decreasing outbreak size (total IPs). Decreasing the control area (0–7 km) and surveillance zone (7–14 km) sizes while using full EID tracing further decreased the number of farms under surveillance but increased the number of IPs slightly. Consistent with previous results, this supports the potential value of early detection and improved traceability to control FMD outbreaks. Further development of the EID system in the US is necessary to achieve the modeled results. Further research into the economic impacts of enhanced tracing and decreased zone sizes are needed to determine the full impact of these results.

Data Parallel Path Tracing with Object Hierarchies

We propose a new approach to rendering production-style content with full path tracing in a data-distributed fashion---that is, with multiple collaborating nodes and/or GPUs that each store only part of the model. In particular, we propose a new approach to ray-forwarding based data-parallel ray tracing that improves over traditional spatial partitioning, that can support both object-hierarchy and spatial partitioning (or any combination thereof), and that employs multiple techniques for reducing the number of rays sent across the network. We show that this approach can simultaneously achieve higher flexibility in model partitioning, lower memory per node, lower bandwidth during rendering, and higher performance; and that it can ultimately achieve interactive rendering performance for non-trivial models with full path tracing even on quite moderate hardware resources with relatively low-end interconnect.

Optimized Cool Coatings as a Strategy to Improve Urban Equivalent Albedo at Various Latitudes

This research study aimed to investigate the influences of angular-selective retro-reflective (AS-RR) and retro-reflective (RR) materials on the urban equivalent albedo (αeq). Full ray tracing solar analyses were conducted through the Monte Carlo-based numerical model validated in a previous work. Different geometry scenarios with different patterns of urban density were modelled. AS-RR and RR materials were alternately applied to the street and to the most irradiated façade. AS-RR materials were proposed to enhance the αeq of the urban environment particularly during summer. Solar analyses were reiterated for three latitudes (i.e., Oslo, Milan, Cairo). RR pavements and façades were capable of increasing the αeq throughout the year. However, implementing an angular-selective behavior allowed for a reduction of the mitigation potential of RR materials during the winter season. In their best application, RR and AS-RR materials enabled higher αeq in summer (122%) with negligible effects during the winter (7%). Finally, the study highlighted the need for exploiting numerical models capable of conducting full ray tracing solar analyses when investigating materials whose optical properties depend on the angle of incidence of the sunrays (such as RR materials).

Modeling heat exchangers with an open source DEM-based code for granular flows

Dense granular flows exist in many solid particle heat exchangers and solar receivers studied in the field of Concentrating Solar Power (CSP). By tracking particles individually with the Discrete Element Method (DEM), the details of particle friction, collisions, and mixing can be modeled accurately. An open source DEM-based code for modeling heat transfer in dense granular flows is presented, called Dense Particle Heat Transfer (DPHT). It uses one-way coupling, with DEM run first to find the particle positions and DPHT run second to calculate heat transfer between particles and any walls. Heat transfer is computed with six sub-models, including effects from contact conduction, conduction through the thin fluid gap between particles, and thermal radiation. Simulations are run to investigate particle-particle radiation, with DPHT matching a full Monte Carlo ray tracing simulation to within 1.6%, whereas the “local environment temperature” models from literature show physically unrealistic results. As a test of the accuracy of DPHT, a simulation is run to replicate published experimental work, and results in terms of total heat transfer are within 4%. Finally, a tubular heat exchanger is analyzed, and a “radial” mixer design is introduced, increasing heat transfer by 8%. Several DEM-based heat transfer codes have been described in literature, but they are often kept in-house. Some open source codes exist as well, but they generally have drawbacks including missing heat transfer modes, insufficient flexibility to make significant changes, and incomplete documentation. DPHT aims to simplify this modeling method by providing a flexible, open source solution.

Analysis and Design of Inhomogeneous Dielectric Lens Antennas by using Geometrical Optics

In this paper we present a novel approach for the analysis and design of inhomogeneous lenses. The standard method of Geometrical Optics for inhomogeneous media is augmented by introducing a novel wavefront-curvature transport equation, which allows the implementation of a full electromagnetic ray tracing (i.e., vector problem including polarization) in a real 1-D fashion, namely along the ray. This opens the possibility of easy parallelization and ultra-fast analysis of inhomogeneous lenses. The design of the lens is then accomplished by resorting to a novel direct synthesis method which, by inverting the analysis problem, directly provides the refractive index spatial distribution capable to drive the rays along prescribed paths which are defined to transform the impinging field on the input surface into the target aperture distribution on the output surface of the lens.

Modeling Interactions of Narrowband Large Amplitude Whistler-mode Waves with Electrons in the Solar Wind inside ∼0.3 au and at 1 au Using a Particle Tracing Code

Abstract The discovery of large amplitude narrowband whistler-mode waves at frequencies of tenths of the electron cyclotron frequency in large numbers both inside ∼0.3 au and at ∼1 au provides an answer to longstanding questions about scattering and energization of solar wind electrons. The waves can have rapid nonlinear interactions with electrons over a broad energy range. Counter propagation between electrons and waves is not required for resonance with the obliquely propagating waves in contrast to the case for parallel propagation. Using a full 3D particle tracing code, we have examined interactions of electrons with energies from 0 eV to 2 keV with whistler-mode waves with amplitudes of 20 mV m−1 and propagation angles from 0° to 180° to the background magnetic field. Interactions with wave packets and single waves are both modeled based on observations at ∼0.3 au and 1 au. A test particle simulation approach allows us to examine the particle motion in detail, which reveals kinetic effects of resonant interactions. The simulations demonstrate the key role played by these waves in rapid scattering and energization of electrons. Strong scattering and energization for some initial energy and pitch angle ranges occurs for both counter-propagating and obliquely propagating waves. Strong scattering of strahl electrons counteracts the pitch angle narrowing due to conservation of the first adiabatic invariant as electrons propagate from the Sun into regions of smaller magnetic field. Scattering also produces the hotter isotropic halo. The concomitant limiting of the electron heat flux is also relevant in other astrophysical settings.

PTC: Full and Drift Particle Orbit Tracing Code for α Particles in Tokamak PlasmasSupported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 11975068 and 11925501), and the National KeyResearch and Development Program of China (Grant No. 2017YFE0300501).

Fusion born α particle confinement is one of the most important issues in burning plasmas, such as ITER and CFETR. However, it is extremely complex due to the nonequilibrium characteristics, and multiple temporal and spatial scales coupling with background plasma. A numerical code using particle orbit tracing method (PTC) has been developed to study energetic particle confinement in tokamak plasmas. Both full orbit and drift orbit solvers are implemented to analyze the Larmor radius effects on α particle confinement. The elastic collisions between alpha particles and thermal plasma are calculated by a Monte Carlo method. A triangle mesh in poloidal section is generated for electromagnetic fields expression. Benchmark between PTC and ORBIT has been accomplished for verification. For CFETR burning plasmas, PTC code is used for α particle source and slowing down process calculation in 2D equilibrium. In future work, 3D field like toroidal field ripples, Alfvén and magnetohydrodynamics instabilities perturbation inducing α particle transport will be analyzed.

First Lanthanide Complex for De Novo Phasing in Native Protein Crystallography at 1 Å Radiation.

Phasing agents enabling de novo protein structure determination at ca. 1 Å, the wavelength corresponding to the maximum intensity of the synchrotron facilities applied in biomacromolecular crystallography, have been long sought-after. The first phasing agent designed for solving native protein structures at 0.97934 Å is described herein. The agent consists of a neutral ytterbium(III)-caged complex that exhibits higher anomalous signals at shorter wavelengths when compared to the best, currently applied lanthanide-based phasing agents, all of them based on gadolinium or terbium. As a proof of principle, the complex allows determining the 3D structure of a 36 kDa protein without setting the incident beam wavelength at the metal absorption edge, the strategy followed to date to gain the strongest anomalous signal even at the expense of crystallographic resolution. The agent becomes nondisruptive to the diffraction quality of the marked crystals and allows determining accurate phases, both leading to high-quality electron-density maps that enable the full tracing of the protein structure only with one agent unit bound to the protein. The high phasing power, efficient binding to the protein, low metal-macromolecule ratio, and easy handling support the developed Yb(III) complex as the best phasing agent for X-ray crystallography of a complex biomacromolecule without using modified analogues.

Polarized holographic lithography system for high-uniformity microscale patterning with periodic tunability

Periodic microscale array structures play an important role in diverse applications involving photonic crystals and diffraction gratings. A polarized holographic lithography system is proposed for patterning high-uniformity microscale two-dimensional crossed-grating structures with periodic tunability. Orthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interference and polarization modulation produce three sub-beams, enabling the formation of two-dimensional crossed-grating patterns with wavelength-comparable periods by a single exposure. The two-dimensional-pattern period can also be flexibly tuned by adjusting the interferometer spatial positioning. Polarization states of three sub-beams, defining the uniformity of the interference fringes, are modulated at their initial-polarization states based on a strict full polarization tracing model in a three-dimensional space. A polarization modulation model is established considering two conditions of eliminating the unexpected interference and providing the desired identical interference intensities. The proposed system is a promising approach for fabricating high-uniformity two-dimensional crossed gratings with a relatively large grating period range of 500–1500 nm. Moreover, our rapid and stable approach for patterning period-tunable two-dimensional-array microstructures with high uniformity could be applicable to other multibeam interference lithography techniques.

An algorithm to identify the positive COVID-19 cases using genetic algorithm (GABFCov 19)

The entire world is under the existential health emergency: the spread of a contagious corona virus. Since this pandemic can be classified as moderate, mild and high risk. But the same method is there to quarantine, monitor and treat with the same set of drugs. Technology is growing at a fast pace and is trying its level best to control, cure and diagnose at the earliest so that the contagious nature of this disease is controlled by Big Data , Artificial Intelligence, Genetic algorithms etc. The only solution to stop this community spread is to have a full proof contact tracing mechanism wherein the diagnosed corona positive patient can be backtracked in real time and all the proximity users are warned and take precautionary measures to stop the spread of this disease. Till now the contact tracing mechanism only highlight the proximity user but no such mechanism is available to signify the risk analysis of those users. In this paper the new algorithm has been developed GABFCov-19 which is based on genetic algorithm. This algorithm will generate high probability positive cases so that it can reduce the community spread. This algorithm is the extended version of the contact tracing mechanism where the clusters are identified. The clusters have been taken from the proximity cluster users and converted into chromosomes that are again operated using selection, crossover and mutation operators’ in order to categorize the proximity users as mild, moderate and high risk. The proposed algorithm is tested on dataset and obtained significant results.

Systematic analysis of a compact setup to measure the photoemitted electron beam transverse momentum and emittance.

A compact setup with a planar-cathode and grid-anode plus free field drift distance configuration (momentatron) has provided a new way to measure the transverse momentum and, hence, the emittance of the electron beam from a photocathode. This method has been used for analysis of the transverse momentum and emittance of the photoemitted electron beam from the photocathode in a stepwise manner during the fabrication process. The errors caused by the lensing effect from opening holes of the grid anode and misalignments caused by tilting and curving have been systematically analyzed. An analytical method has been developed, and a full three-dimensional electrostatic field particle tracing simulation has been performed to validate this measurement technique. The results show that a momentatron can provide an accurate measurement of transverse momentum and emittance of the photoemitted electrons. The reasonable experimental errors that may be encountered will only have a modest (few %) effect on the emittance measurement.

Effect of COVID-19 Non-Pharmaceutical Interventions and the Implications for Human Rights.

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, many governments swiftly decided to order nationwide lockdowns based on limited evidence that such extreme measures were effective in containing the epidemic. A growing concern is that governments were given little time to adopt effective and proportional interventions protecting citizens’ lives while observing their freedom and rights. This paper examines the effectiveness of non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) in containing COVID-19, by conducting a linear regression over 108 countries, and the implication for human rights. The regression results are supported by evidence that shows the change in 10 selected countries’ responding strategies and their effects as the confirmed cases increase. We found that school closures are effective in containing COVID-19 only when they are implemented along with complete contact tracing. Our findings imply that to contain COVID-19 effectively and minimize the risk of human rights abuses, governments should consider implementing prudently designed full contact tracing and school closure policies, among others. Minimizing the risk of human rights abuses should be a principle even when full contact tracing is implemented.

Estimation of the percentages of undiagnosed patients of the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) infection in Hokkaido, Japan by using birth-death process with recursive full tracing.

Estimating the percentages of undiagnosed and asymptomatic patients is essential for controlling the outbreak of SARS-CoV-2, and for assessing any strategy for controlling the disease. In this paper, we propose a novel analysis based on the birth-death process with recursive full tracing. We estimated the numbers of undiagnosed symptomatic patients and the lower bound of the number of total infected individuals per diagnosed patient before and after the declaration of the state of emergency in Hokkaido, Japan. The median of the estimated number of undiagnosed symptomatic patients per diagnosed patient decreased from 1.7 to 0.77 after the declaration, and the median of the estimated lower bound of the number of total infected individuals per diagnosed patient decreased from 4.2 to 2.4. We will discuss the limitations and possible expansions of the model.

Policies and innovations to battle Covid-19 – A case study of South Korea

ObjectivesTo describe how health care crisis resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea has led to innovation and changes to government policy. This paper presents the significant cluster events, relevant developments of innovation, and economical impact in Korea that could inform policy makers on how to respond to health crises in the future. MethodsHealth care, economy, epidemiological data are collected from various sources including the Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (KCDC) or other government sources. ResultsThe KCDC jointly with medical professionals developed a series of innovations such as 1) Full contact tracing and rapid testing with a 12 h turnaround and 10 min movement tracking systems, 2) transparent disclosure of all contract tracing data to the public through a central database, 3) Drive-Through and Walk-Through testing methods, and 4) a 4 tier patient severity index and community treatment isolation centers. Korea moved from the 4th in the world for total confirmed cases in March down to 76th in August. ConclusionsExpedited enforcement of amended legislation acts to protect the healthcare workforce resulted in only 10 healthcare professionals contracting the virus while caring for Covid-19 patients. This has resulted in minimal human capital loss and the government was able to re-direct existing medical workforce to areas in need. The quarantine strategies implemented resulted in little need to lock down the whole economy but also limited the cost spent to gain a year of life to 193,848 Won (US$163).

Effect of COVID-19 Non-Pharmaceutical Interventions and Threats to Human Rights

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, many governments have implemented non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) to curb rapid virus transmission. A growing concern is that such interventions, aimed at ensuring public safety, may severely restrain fundamental human rights. This paper examines which NPIs are more effective than others in containing COVID-19 with the consideration of their threat to human rights. After classifying NPIs into three categories according to their threat to human rights: the right to freedom of movement, the right to freedom of assembly, and the right to privacy, this paper conducts linear regression analyses on the effectiveness of NPIs in containing COVID-19 over 108 countries. This paper finds that school closure is effective in containing COVID-19 only when it is implemented along with complete contact tracing. We confirm the results of the regression analysis by examining the changes in the cumulated number of confirmed cases and the changes of NPIs in ten selected countries. Our findings imply that to contain COVID-19 effectively and minimize the risk of human rights abuse, governments should consider implementing prudently designed full contact tracing and school closure policies, among others. Other interventions limiting freedom of movement and assembly should be carefully adopted with minimal infringement of human rights.

Policies and Innovations to Battle COVID-19 – A Case Study of South Korea

Objectives: To describe how health care crisis resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea has led to innovation and changes to government policy. This paper presents the significant cluster events, relevant developments of innovation, and economical impact in Korea that could inform policy makers on how to respond to health crises in the future. Methods: Health care, economy, epidemiological data are collected from various sources including the Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (KCDC) or other government sources. Results: The KCDC jointly with medical professionals developed a series of innovations such as 1) Full contact tracing and rapid testing with a 12 hours turnaround and 10 minutes movement tracking systems, 2) transparent disclosure of all contract tracing data to the public through a central database, 3) Drive-Through and Walk-Through testing methods, and 4) a 4 tier patient severity index and community treatment isolation centers. Korea moved from the 4th in the world for total confirmed cases in March down to 76th in August. Conclusions: Expedited enforcement of amended legislation acts to protect the healthcare workforce resulted in only 10 healthcare professionals contracting the virus while caring for Covid-19 patients. This has resulted in minimal human capital loss and the government was able to re-direct existing medical workforce to areas in need. The quarantine strategies implemented resulted in little need to lock down the whole economy but also limited the cost spent to gain a year of life to 193,848 Won (US$163).

Monte Carlo simulation of biometric effect sizes and their influence on the translational ratio of corneal astigmatism in the cylinders of toric intraocular lenses

Hintergrund und ZielsetzungTorische Kapselsacklinsen bieten heutzutage eine zuverlässige Option der permanenten Korrektur eines Hornhautastigmatismus. Zur Ermittlung der für den gewünschten Ausgleich erforderlichen Linsenstärke kann der Operateur entweder auf die in seinem Biometriegerät implementierten Berechnungsmodi oder auf den vom Linsenhersteller angebotenen Kalkulationsservice zurückgreifen. In vielen Fällen wird dabei allerdings keine klassische Linsenberechnung aus biometrischen Daten durchgeführt, sondern nur mit einer vereinfachten Abschätzung gearbeitet, die den Hornhautastigmatismus in den Torus der tIOL übersetzt. Dieses dann zumeist als durchschnittlicher Standardwert genutzte Übersetzungsverhältnis kann jedoch eine erhebliche Schwankungsbreite aufweisen, sodass im ungünstigsten Fall eine Unterkorrektur des refraktiven Zylinders um bis zu 12,5 % oder eine Überkorrektur um bis zu 17 % resultieren kann. Ziel dieser Studie war es aufzuzeigen, welche biometrischen Einflussgrößen das Verhältnis zwischen dem zu korrigierenden Hornhautastigmatismus und dem für dessen Vollkorrektur notwendigen Torus einer Kapselsacklinse bestimmen.MethodenAus der WEB-Plattform IOLCon wurden 16.744 Datensätze extrahiert, und anhand der präoperativen biometrischen Größen und dem postoperativen sphärischen Äquivalent wurde zunächst die axiale Position der Kapselsacklinse formelunabhängig abgeleitet. Anschließend wurde, basierend auf der Propagation sphärozylindrischer Vergenzen, der entsprechende Brechwert einer emmetropisierenden Kapselsacklinse ermittelt. Das Übersetzungsverhältnis als Quotient aus dem Torus der Linse und dem Hornhautastigmatismus wurde mit einer Monte-Carlo-Simulation auf seine potenziellen Einflussgrößen hin untersucht.ErgebnisseDie Monte-Carlo-Simulation zeigt, dass nicht von einem konstanten Übersetzungsverhältnis ausgegangen werden kann. Für die hier zugrunde gelegten klinischen Fälle ergibt sich ein mittleres Übersetzungsverhältnis von 1,3938 ± 0,0595 (Median 1,3921) mit einer Spannweite von 1,2131 bis 1,5974. Den größten Einfluss hat hierbei die axiale Position der Kapselsacklinse – je weiter posterior sich diese befindet, desto höher ist das Übersetzungsverhältnis. Aufgrund der Korrelation der axialen Linsenposition mit der Augenlänge kann die Augenlänge als indirekte Einflussgröße gewertet werden. Der Äquivalentbrechwert sowie der Astigmatismus der Hornhaut besitzen keinen nennenswerten Effekt auf das Übersetzungsverhältnis.DiskussionIn einer ganzen Reihe von Berechnungsmodulen wird die Kalkulation des Torus der Kapselsacklinse dahingehend vereinfacht, dass dieser mittels eines einfachen konstanten Umrechnungsfaktors aus dem gemessenen Hornhautastigmatismus abgeleitet wird. Die vorliegende Studie zeigt jedoch, dass diese Vereinfachung zu deutlich fehlerhaften Ergebnissen führen kann. Dementsprechend wird eine individuelle Berechnung des Torus der IOL aus gemessenen biometrischen Größen (z. B. mittels Vergenzpropagation, Matrizen oder mittels Full-aperture-Raytracing) empfohlen.

Predictive modeling of laser and electron beam powder bed fusion additive manufacturing of metals at the mesoscale

We present the results of 3D modeling of the laser and electron beam powder bed fusion process at the mesoscale with an in-house developed advanced multiphysical numerical tool. The hydrodynamics and thermal conductivity core of the tool is based on the lattice Boltzmann method. The numerical tool takes into account the random distributions of powder particles by size in a layer and the propagation of the laser (electron beam) with a full ray tracing (Monte Carlo) model that includes multiple reflections, phase transitions, thermal conductivity, and detailed liquid dynamics of the molten metal, influenced by evaporation of the metal and the recoil pressure. The model has been validated by a number of physical tests. We numerically demonstrate a strong dependence of the net energy absorption of the incoming heat source beam by the powder bed and melt pool on the beam power. We show the ability of our model to predict the measurable properties of a single track on a bare substrate as well as on a powder layer. We obtain good agreement with experimental data for the depth, width and shape of a track for a number of materials and a wide range of energy source parameters. We further apply our model to the simulation of the entire layer formation and demonstrate the strong dependence of the resulting layer morphology on the hatch spacing. The presented model could be very helpful for optimizing the additive process without carrying out a large number of experiments in a common trial-and-error method, developing process parameters for new materials, and assessing novel modalities of powder bed fusion additive manufacturing.