Conditions Of Full Information Research Articles

Designing for Trust: How Human-Machine Interface Can Shape the Future of Urban Air Mobility

This study investigates the influence of human-machine interface (HMI) design on passenger trust in autonomous electric vertical take-off and landing (eVTOL) vehicles. An immersive simulator-based experiment was conducted with 34 participants, exposing them to four HMI conditions: baseline, movement, hazard detection, and full information condition. As related measures of passenger trust, we collected self-reported measures including trust, perceived safety, perceived reliability, and intention to use. In addition, physiological measures including gaze behavior, electrodermal activity, and heart rate were collected. The results indicated that movement and hazard detection information improved passenger trust, suggesting that HMI design could play a crucial role in enhancing the acceptance of autonomous eVTOLs. In addition, gaze behavior showed a stronger relationship with self-reported trust than other physiological measures. The findings underscore the importance of HMI design in fostering passenger trust, which is critical to the success of urban air mobility.

How to Vote Correctly

The concept of correct voting, which refers to a vote that is the same one that would have been made under conditions of full information, has been used to evaluate citizens' voting decisions in various settings. Most studies either focus on determining individual and situational predictors of correct voting or determining the correctness of voting via heuristics. Since heuristics can lead to better decision outcomes than systematic processes, the goal of this study was to analyze how different modes of decision-making strategies, as well as individual and situational characteristics, contribute to correct voting. To answer this question, an experiment was conducted in Croatia, a previously unstudied context for correct voting, in which participants gathered information on four parties in a mock election campaign. Results showed that higher political motivation and usage of compensatory decision-making strategies had a positive impact on the probability of casting a correct vote. However, direct effect of cognitive load was found for participants with low levels of political motivation, for which an increase in cognitive load resulted in 25% less probability of voting correctly.

Through the eyes of a hunter: assessing perception and exclusion performance in ground-hornbills.

Logical inference, once strictly associated with spoken language, is now reported in some non-human animals. One aspect of logical inference, reasoning by exclusion, has been traditionally explored through the use of the cups task (cup A and cup B, if not cup A, then exclude cup A and select cup B). However, to fully understand the factors that drove the evolution of logical processes in animals, this latter paradigm needs to cover a taxonomically broader spectrum of species. In this study, we aimed to test the capacity of Southern ground-hornbills (Bucorvus leadbeateri) to show exclusion performance in a two-way object-choice task. First, we determined whether subjects could perceive and choose correctly between two containers (one rewarded, one unrewarded) using visual or acoustic cues (sensory phase). If successful, individuals were then presented with three experimental conditions (test phase): Full information (content of both cups revealed), Exclusion (content of the empty cup revealed), and Control (no content revealed). During the sensory phase, ground-hornbills succeeded in choosing the rewarded container only in the visual modality. Birds were able to select the rewarded container more than would be expected by chance in the Full information condition, but their performances were equal to chance in the Control condition. The without-learning performance of two individuals within the Exclusion condition indicates that this task is not trivial, which invites further investigation on this species' capacity to represent the dependent relationship between the cups (true logical inference).

Wild skuas can use acoustic cues to locate hidden food.

Among animals, the visual acuity of several predatory bird species is probably the most outstanding. This, and the ease with which visually based tasks are administered, has led researchers to predominantly use the visual modality when studying avian cognition. Some wild skua populations routinely use acoustic cues emitted by their prey during foraging. In this study, we thus assessed whether this species was able to locate hidden food using acoustic cues alone (training phase). During the subsequent test phase, we investigated the capacity of successful individuals to choose the correct baited container in four conditions: (i) baited (shaking the baited container), (ii) full information (shaking both containers), (iii) exclusion (shaking the empty container), and (iv) control (shaking neither container). Four out of ten subjects succeeded in locating the baited container in the training phase. During the test phase, most subjects chose the baited container significantly more than the empty container in the baited and full information condition, while their performance was at chance level in the control condition. When no sound emanated from the empty container in the exclusion condition, one out of four skuas chose the baited container with more accuracy than predicted by chance. As this bird chose correctly on the first trial and during the first five trials, its performance is unlikely due to learning processes (learning to exclude the empty container). Although further tests are necessary to draw firm conclusions, our results open the way for assessing further this species' reasoning abilities in the wild.

Exclusion by donkey's ears: Donkeys (Equus asinus) use acoustic information to find hidden food in a two-way object-choice task.

Once believed uniquely human, the capacity to reason is now investigated in a wide range of species. One component of this ability, inference by exclusion, has been traditionally explored through the cups task, where 2 containers are presented but only 1 covers a food reward (if Cup A is empty, then choose Cup B). Often based on low-level cognitive mechanisms (learning), performance on this task can also reflect reasoning processes in some individuals. Limited taxonomic investigation, however, has hindered our understanding of the factors that contribute to the evolution of reasoning in animals. Using the cups task, we first investigated the ability of 14 semiwild donkeys to locate a food reward by using visual or acoustic cues alone (pretest phase). Although all subjects failed the task when provided with visual cues, 7 donkeys succeeded in the acoustic modality. We thus tested the capacity of donkeys to make choices by exclusion in the acoustic modality (test phase). Three conditions were presented, where subjects received information about either both containers (full information condition), solely the empty container (exclusion condition), or no information (control condition). Most subjects chose the correct container in the full information condition, whereas they chose randomly in the control condition. Except for 1 individual, donkeys improved their performance across trials in the exclusion condition. Our study contributes to the very small body of literature on exclusion based on acoustic cues in animals and paves the way to further experiments on the cognitive processes underlying exclusion performance in donkeys. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Effect of region of origin on willingness to pay for wine: an experimental auction

ABSTRACT The purpose of this paper is to examine the effect of the region of origin on wine consumers’ preferences and willingness to pay for wine together with other determinants, using an incentive compatible tool. Data were collected through an experimental auction mechanism in different Portuguese wine regions. Consumers’ willingness to pay for wines from three regions of origin was elicited under two information scenarios: i) blind tasting followed by extrinsic information regarding the region of origin and ii) full information provided at once. Wine consumers characteristics were also collected from a sample of 168 wine consumers. Results reveal that, the region of origin influences the hedonic evaluation of consumers.Consumers are willing to pay higher prices in full information condition, on average. Purchase frequency and less self-reported wine knowledge have a negative effect on the willingness to pay, while taste has a positive effect. Controlling for organoleptic attributes, and the importance of extrinsic cues, the region of origin has a significant influence on willingness to pay, as well as on the hedonic rating, and purchase frequency. This study offers important insights for policy makers regarding the existence of significant preference heterogeneity and the role of the region of origin.

How does animal welfare taste? Combining sensory and choice experiments to evaluate willingness to pay for animal welfare pork

Although consumers show considerable interest in higher animal welfare, the market share for such products remains low. To provide consumers with a choice regarding different levels of animal welfare, animal welfare labels have been developed. Such product options are intended to serve as intermediate products between conventional products and more expensive organic options that are often associated with high animal welfare standards. This study aims to evaluate whether information about animal welfare practices affects consumers’ liking and willingness to pay (WTP) for a pork product. Using a within-subject design with three evaluation rounds (blind, expectation, and full information) we combine hedonic liking where subjects rate four different types of ham with a choice experiment. Hams differ in the animal husbandry conditions during the rearing and fattening process: conventional rearing, a specific treatment of mother sows, a general animal welfare label, and organic production. Results show an effect of information on consumers’ sensory evaluation of the different products, although products were evaluated to be similar in the blind condition. Consumers rated the organic product higher than those with animal welfare labels while the conventional option had the lowest liking scores. Results from the choice experiment concur with the hedonic rating. Estimates indicate that consumers are willing to pay more for ham bearing a general animal welfare or organic label in the expectation and full information condition. Consequently, information regarding animal welfare affects both consumers’ hedonic liking and WTP for ham.

The role of information about opponent’s actions and intrusion-detection alerts on cyber decisions in cyber security games

Cyberspace is becoming increasingly prone to cyberattacks. Cyberattack and cyber-defend decisions may be influenced by the information about actions of adversaries and defenders available to opponents (interdependence information) as well as by alerts from intrusion detection systems (IDSs), which offer recommendations to defenders against cyberattacks. Little is currently known, however, on how interdependence information and IDS alerts would influence the attack-and-defend decisions in cyber security. This paper discusses a laboratory experiment involving participants (N = 140) performing as would-be adversaries (attackers) and defenders (analysts). Participants were randomly assigned to four between-subjects conditions in a cyber security game, where the conditions varied in interdependence information (full-information or no-information) and IDS alerts (present or absent). Results revealed that the proportion of defend (attack) actions were smaller (same) when IDS was present compared to absent. In addition, the proportion of defend (attack) actions were same (smaller) in conditions of full-information about opponents compared to no-information about opponents. Furthermore, to understand the experimental results, the authors calibrated cognitive models based upon instance-based learning theory (IBLT), a theory of decisions from experience. Based upon the experimental conditions, four different variants of a single instance-based learning (IBL) model were developed. Model results revealed excessive reliance on recency and frequency of information and cognitive noise among both attackers and defenders across different experimental conditions. The paper highlights the implications of our results for cyber-decisions in the real world.

Consumer Expectations for Geographical Origin: Eliciting Willingness to Pay (WTP) Using the Disconfirmation of Expectation Theory (EDT)

ABSTRACTThis study explores the impact of geographical origin in consumer expectations. Willingness to pay (WTP) for geographical origin was measured in three different information conditions (blind, labeled, and both blind and labeled) using an open ended technique of contingent valuation (CV) in the framework of expectations-disconfirmation theory (EDT). The results from the EDT show that a product with a positive reputation and highly preferred by the consumer is losing continuously the premium price paid for it. The decrease of the WTP in full information condition for the most preferred origin is probably due to the lowered consumer expectations and to the damages of the good image as a result of unfair competition, usurpation, and the misappropriation of the name. Geographical indications (GIs) may offer a solution to these problems by preserving the predictive value of origin information, maintaining high consumer expectations, and also preserving the good reputation of the product.

Optimal Fiscal Equalization under Asymmetric Information

This paper focuses on the problem of how to design optimal fiscal equalization with different fiscal needs among regions with asymmetric information. In the full information condition, our results suggest that an efficient transfer scheme should not simply fully equalize the fiscal need among regions by redistributing among regions. Instead, it should equalize the marginal cost of public funds across regions, in which the social cost of raising tax revenues can be minimized. In the asymmetric information condition, in order to eliminate the incentive of rich regions mimicking poor regions, the second best policies designed for poor regions are distorted while policies for rich regions remain the first best condition. Thus, rich regions get some informational rents.

Psychopaths and Filthy Desks

Philosophical and empirical moral psychologists claim that emotions are both necessary and sufficient for moral judgment. The aim of this paper is to assess the evidence in favor of both claims and to show how a moderate rationalist position about moral judgment can be defended nonetheless. The experimental evidence for both the necessity- and the sufficiency-thesis concerning the connection between emotional reactions and moral judgment is presented. I argue that a rationalist about moral judgment can be happy to accept the necessity-thesis. My argument draws on the idea that emotions play the same role for moral judgment that perceptions play for ordinary judgments about the external world. I develop a rationalist interpretation of the sufficiency-thesis and show that it can successfully account for the available empirical evidence. The general idea is that the rationalist can accept the claim that emotional reactions are sufficient for moral judgment just in case a subject’s emotional reaction towards an action in question causes the judgment in a way that can be reflectively endorsed under conditions of full information and rationality. This idea is spelled out in some detail and it is argued that a moral agent is entitled to her endorsement if the way she arrives at her judgment reliably leads to correct moral beliefs, and that this reliability can be established if the subject’s emotional reaction picks up on the morally relevant aspects of the situation.

Assessing Power in Spatial Bargaining: When Is There Advantage to Being Status-Quo Advantaged?

Bargaining at various levels has taken on a greater role in our understanding of international relations. Milner's (1997) work presented a model in which bargaining at the international level would result in the status quo advantaged actor getting his ideal agreement. We conducted a face-to-face experiment between sixty-eight pairings of men to test this prediction in a controlled setting. All of the participants were presented with the same bargaining problem in different contexts. For each pairing, we collected data on a trial bargaining period under a classic Nash bargaining problem (under private information, but without monetary incentive) and two bargaining periods with an underlying unidimensional issue space (i.e., Milner's model, once under private information, the other under full information, each with monetary incentive). While the Nash bargaining solution was consistently chosen under the classic Nash bargaining problem, it was rarely chosen when the bargaining problem represented an underlying unidimensional issue space. For the unidimensional bargaining problem, private information did not facilitate producing any consistent outcome; under full information, the point--in which each participant earned the same dollar amount--was chosen significantly more often than any other outcome, even under a context in which the equity point was incentive incompatible for one actor to agree to that agreement. The overall results suggest that the Nash bargaining solution is predictive when it is also a focal point in the bargaining space, but is only prescriptive in a bargaining space with many mutually improving points. Finally, private information allowed the status quo advantaged actor to get a better deal compared to the full-information condition.

Information and the distribution of power in exchange networks*

While much attention has been paid to the identification and distribution of power in exchange networks, little has been paid to the role information plays in these processes. This is surprising because information availability is one of the key differences between the two main experimental research paradigms in this field, power‐dependence and network exchange/elementary theory. The former investigates power distribution when subjects have no information about network structure while the latter examines the same problem under conditions of full information. We derive specific hypotheses about power development in “strong power” networks under different information conditions using “resistance” analysis, a set of orienting ideas found in network exchange/elementary theory. We evaluate these derived functional forms against experimental data. We find that the effect of information on power development is consistent with the general resistance framework even though there is little support for its specific claims.

Effects of performance expectancy and outcome certainty on interest in social comparison

Preferences for social comparison information were studied by observing how much Ss explored a distribution of others' test scores and how they made inferences from this distribution. It was hypothesized that Ss would be more interested in exploring this distribution in a Partial Information Condition (when they were given their own performance score but no evaluation of this score) than in a No Information or a Full Information Condition. It was also hypothesized that having a need for self-enhancement or dissonance reduction aroused by receiving a low score or an unexpected score would stimulate exploration of this distribution. Ninety-three students sampled the distribution of exam scores obtained by members of their class and tried to estimate the class average. Subjects in fact displayed equal interest in the distribution in the three information conditions. In the Full Information Condition, however, Ss who received unexpectedly low scores searched much longer. Subjects receiving low outcomes generally lowered their estimates of the class average. Discussion emphasizes that both dissonance reduction and a general curiosity as well as self-enhancement and self-evaluation drives may serve as motives for social comparison.