Fukushima Reactor Research Articles

Cumulative Ordinary Kriging interpolation model to forecast radioactive fallout, and its application to Chernobyl and Fukushima assessment: a new method and mini review.

The Cumulative Ordinary Kriging (COK) interpolation method has been proposed for the spatial prediction of atmospheric radioactive fallout in any given region. COK is built on the Ordinary Kriging and Cumulative Semivariogram methods and combines all their advantages to achieve statistically significant results. It is verified in this paper the reliability of the results from COK with other well-known Modified Shepard's Method (MSM), Inverse Distance Square (INDSQ), Polynomial Regression (PR), Natural Neighbour (NN), Radial Basis (RB), and Kriging Method interpolation methods. The model is tested in detail and in every possible way in two and three dimensions and applied to real-time Cs-134 and Cs-137 radioactive fallout data from the Chernobyl and Fukushima reactor accidents by combining both experimental and theoretical results. The results obtained from the applications for all interpolation methods are included in the supplementary materials section at the end of the article for the benefit of the readers. COK can also be used for spatial modelling of any particle at micro or macro scale. It can contribute significantly to environmental quality, ecological, and human health.

Fate and denial: The Fukushima reactor 3, and the L’Aquila earthquake 7

Fate and denial: The Fukushima reactor 3, and the L’Aquila earthquake 7

131I, 137Cs, 134Cs from Fukushima fallout at Milano, Italy

Right after the Fukushima reactor accident, a systematic air and wet sampling and analysis programme was undertaken to detect and quantitatively analyze the radionuclides in the Fukushima fallout in Milano, Italy. Radionuclides from Fukushima were first detected at Milano region in a rain water sample, collected during March 27-28, 2011 with the concentrations of 131I and 137Cs isotopes in the rainwater to be equal with 0.89 Bq/L and 0.12 Bq/L, respectively. The concentration of 131I in goat and cow milk samples from a farm in Monte Rosa mountain, were 0.25 and 0.21 Bq/L, respectively. Increased atmospheric radioactivity was detected on air filter taken on 30 March 2011, while the maximum activity of 467 μBq/m3 occurred at April 3-4, 2011. A week later the activities had fallen to about 50% of peak values, with a general increasing trend over the following days. In the time period of one month after the nuclear accident, concentrations of 137Cs and 134Cs in air as high as 63 μBq/m3 and 61 μBq/m3, respectively were recorded. The presence of more than one peaks of 131I and 137,134Cs till April 11, 2011, indicates that 131I and 137,134Cs were continuously transferred from Fukushima, Japan to Italy. According to the measurements, airborne activity levels remain of no concern for public health in Italy.

Temporal changes of the ambient dose rate in the forest environments of Fukushima Prefecture following the Fukushima reactor accident

Approximately 70% of the total land area affected by the fallout from the Fukushima accident is forested, and therefore monitoring of the ambient dose rate in forest environments is essential to ensure that the population and natural habitats of these areas are protected from radiological hazards. However, there are little available data on the ambient dose rate for forest environments. This study investigated temporal changes in the ambient dose rate in different forest environments of Fukushima Prefecture. We conducted repeated measurements of the ambient dose rate in 2014 and 2016 at the same measurement points as those used by the Ministry of Agriculture, Fishery and Forestry of Japan (MAFF) in 2011. The measurements revealed that the decreasing trend in the ambient dose rate varied among the different forest types and time periods. The ambient dose rate in EGC decreased slower than that induced by the physical decay of radiocesium for the period of 2011–2014. However, such slow declining trend of ambient dose rate was likely followed by quick reduction during the following years (2014–2016 and 2011–2016). On the other hand, in MBL and DBF forests, the ambient dose rate decreased 10–20% faster than that induced solely by physical decay of radiocesium for the observation period 2011–2016.

Temporal changes of the ambient dose rate in the forest environments of Fukushima Prefecture following the Fukushima reactor accident

Approximately 70% of the total land area affected by the fallout from the Fukushima accident is forested, and therefore monitoring of the ambient dose rate in forest environments is essential to ensure that the population and natural habitats of these areas are protected from radiological hazards. However, there are little available data on the ambient dose rate for forest environments. This study investigated temporal changes in the ambient dose rate in different forest environments of Fukushima Prefecture. We conducted repeated measurements of the ambient dose rate in 2014 and 2016 at the same measurement points as those used by the Ministry of Agriculture, Fishery and Forestry of Japan (MAFF) in 2011. The measurements revealed that the decreasing trend in the ambient dose rate varied among the different forest types and time periods. The ambient dose rate in EGC decreased slower than that induced by the physical decay of radiocesium for the period of 2011–2014. However, such slow declining trend of ambient dose rate was likely followed by quick reduction during the following years (2014–2016 and 2011–2016). On the other hand, in MBL and DBF forests, the ambient dose rate decreased 10–20% faster than that induced solely by physical decay of radiocesium for the observation period 2011–2016.

Effect of Fukushima Accident on Fishes and Fish Like other Foods Collected from the Bay of Bengal and Karnaphuli River, Bangladesh

An experiment was carried out to assess the radiological exposure due to the intake of fishes and fish like foods from some common estuary (Karnaphuli River) and Marine (Bay of Bengal) contaminated by Fukushima Reactor Accident, if any, by using gamma spectroscopy. The analysis was done to estimate the radioactivity concentrations due to natural radionuclides namely 238U, 232Th and 40K and artificial radionuclide 137Cs in Karnaphuli estuary and Chittagong city adjoining Bay of Bengal fish and fish-like samples. The activity concentration for 238U in all the samples ranged from 0.10615 ± 0.0000 to 2.4767 ± 0.0005 Bq.kg-1 with the mean of 0.6109 ± 0.0001 Bq.kg-1. The Activity of 232Th ranged from 0.0009 ± 0.0000 to 0.0273 ± 0.0000 Bq.kg-1 with the mean of 0.0074 ± 0.0000 Bq.kg-1. The activity concentration for 40K was found to be in the range from 1.5516 ± 0.0311 to 74.8658 ± 0.2532 Bq.kg-1 with the mean of 24.9533 ± 0.0702 Bq.kg-1. The artificial radionuclide 137Cs was not found in any of the samples. The specific activity values for most of the sample were within the permissible limits. The average effective dose and internal hazard index due to consumption of those fishes and fish-like foods was found to be 0.1 mSv.y-1 and 0.0085 ± 0.0000 mSv.y-1 respectively. The research work showed that the consumers of concerned fishes and fish-like foods of the Chittagong area have no risk of radioactivity ingestion even though no amount of radiation is assumed to be totally safe.
 The Chittagong Univ. J. Sci. 40(1) : 75-96, 2018

Determining the initial Fukushima reactor accident-derived cesium-137 fallout in forested areas of municipalities in Fukushima Prefecture

ABSTRACT This study determined the initial distribution of Fukushima reactor-derived radiocesium fallout in forest areas of Fukushima Prefecture based on analysis of airborne monitoring surveys by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). The results of the fifth airborne monitoring surveys were compared with the third airborne survey data in order to correct for variation of deposition density due to multiple factors such as weathering processes and measurement uncertainties between two surveys. Finally, the results of the third and the corrected fifth airborne surveys were combined to reconstruct the initial radiocesium fallout map over the whole Fukushima Prefecture area following the Fukushima reactor accident. Our calculation results showed that forest areas accumulated 72% of the total atmospheric input of 137Cs to the land of Fukushima Prefecture. The deposition density in forest areas showed significant variability among municipalities. Nevertheless, forest areas accumulated a large percentage of atmospherically deposited radiocesium in many municipalities. Statistical analysis of the variability in 137Cs deposition density indicated that deposition density varied significantly, even within a municipality. Furthermore, the inconsistency in the probability distributions of measured deposition density among municipalities makes it difficult to obtain a representative initial radiocesium fallout input following the accident. To reduce uncertainty in environmental parameters related to radiocesium transfer in forest environments, we strongly recommend that the deposition density of initial 137Cs fallout at each location is determined by in-situ sampling survey and using the reconstructed 137Cs fallout map presented in this study.

A practical method for determining γ-ray full-energy peak efficiency considering coincidence-summing and self-absorption corrections for the measurement of environmental samples after the Fukushima reactor accident

A method for determining the γ-ray full-energy peak efficiency at positions close to three Ge detectors and at the well port of a well-type detector was developed for measuring environmental volume samples containing 137Cs, 134Cs and 40K. The efficiency was estimated by considering two correction factors: coincidence-summing and self-absorption corrections. The coincidence-summing correction for a cascade transition nuclide was estimated by an experimental method involving measuring a sample at the far and close positions of a detector. The derived coincidence-summing correction factors were compared with those of analytical and Monte Carlo simulation methods and good agreements were obtained. Differences in the matrix of the calibration source and the environmental sample resulted in an increase or decrease of the full-energy peak counts due to the self-absorption of γ-rays in the sample. The correction factor was derived as a function of the densities of several matrix materials. The present method was applied to the measurement of environmental samples and also low-level radioactivity measurements of water samples using the well-type detector.

LONG-TERM BIODOSIMETRY REDUX.

This paper revisits and reiterates the needs, purposes and requirements of biodosimetric assays for long-term dose and health risk assessments. While the most crucial need for biodosimetric assays is to guide medical response for radiation accidents, the value of such techniques for improving our understanding of radiation health risk by supporting epidemiological (long-term health risk) studies is significant. As new cohorts of exposed persons are identified and new health risk studies are undertaken with the hopes that studying the exposed will result in a deeper understanding of radiation risk, the value of reliable dose reconstruction is underscored. The ultimate application of biodosimetry in long-term health risk studies would be to completely replace model-based dose reconstruction-a complex suite of methods for retrospectively estimating dose that is commonly fraught with large uncertainties due to the absence of important exposure-related information, as well as imperfect models. While biodosimetry could potentially supplant model-based doses, there are numerous limitations of presently available techniques that constrain their widespread application in health risk research, including limited ability to assess doses received far in the past, high cost, great inter-individual variability, invasiveness, higher than preferred detection limits and the inability to assess internal dose (for the most part). These limitations prevent the extensive application of biodosimetry to large cohorts and should be considered a challenge to researchers to develop new and more flexible techniques that meet the demands of long-term health risk research. Events in recent years, e.g. the Fukushima reactor accident and the increased threat of nuclear terrorism, underscore that any event that results in significant radiation exposures of a group of people will also produce a much larger population, exposed at lower levels, but that likewise needs (or demands) an exposure assessment. Hence, the needs for retrospective dose estimation are likely to be greater in the future. The value of biodosimetry can be considerably enhanced with the development of new or improved methods, particularly with suitability for application at long periods of time after exposure.

Cadmium and other elements in tissues from four ungulate species from the Mackenzie Mountain region of the Northwest Territories, Canada

Tissue samples from four ungulate species from the south Mackenzie Mountain region of the Northwest Territories (NT), Canada, were analysed for stable and radioactive elements and 15N and 13C stable isotopes. Elevated Cd concentrations in moose (Alces americanus) kidney have been observed in the region and are a health care concern for consumers of traditional foods. This study examined the factors associated with, and potential renal effects from, the accumulation of cadmium, and interactions with other elements in four sympatric ungulate species. Mean renal Cd concentration was highest in moose (48.3mg/kg ww), followed by mountain caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) (13.9mg/kg ww) and mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus) (5.78mg/kg ww). No local sources of Cd were evident and the elevated levels in moose are considered to be natural in origin. Conversely, total Hg concentration was significantly higher in mountain caribou kidney (0.21mg/kg ww) than in moose (0.011mg/kg ww). 134Cs (t½=2.1 y) in mountain goat and Dall's sheep (Ovis dalli) muscle is evidence of deposition from the Fukushima reactor accident in 2011. 137Cs (t½=30.2 y) in all four ungulates is primarily a remnant of the nuclear weapons tests of the 1960s. The levels of both nuclides are low and the risk to the animals and people consuming them is negligible.Stable isotope δ15N and δ13C signatures in muscle showed a separation between the mountain caribou, with a lichen-dominated diet, and moose, which browse shrubs and forbs. Isotope signatures for mountain goat and Dall's sheep showed generalist feeding patterns. Differences in elemental and radionuclide levels between species were attributed to relative levels of metal accumulation in the different food items in the diets of the respective species. Kidneys from each species showed minor histological changes in the proximal tubule and glomerulus, although glomerular changes were rare and all changes were rare in mountain goat kidney. Kidney function was not expected to be affected in any species.Provisional Monthly Intake recommendations from the WHO indicate that Cd in moose organs will continue to be a public health care concern. However, traditional foods continue to be an important nutritional component of northern diets, particularly in consideration of the shift towards store-bought food.

Robot designed to help clean up Fukushima reactor

Robot designed to help clean up Fukushima reactor

Fission products from the damaged Fukushima reactor observed in Hungary

Fission products, especially 131I, 134Cs and 137Cs, from the damaged Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear power plant (NPP) were detected in many places worldwide shortly after the accident caused by natural disaster. To observe the spatial and temporal variation of these isotopes in Hungary, aerosol samples were collected at five locations from late March to early May 2011: Institute of Nuclear Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences (ATOMKI, Debrecen, East Hungary), Paks NPP (Paks, South-Central Hungary) as well as at the vicinity of Aggtelek (Northeast Hungary), Tapolca (West Hungary) and Bátaapáti (Southwest Hungary) settlements. In addition to the aerosol samples, dry/wet fallout samples were collected at ATOMKI, and airborne elemental iodine and organic iodide samples were collected at Paks NPP. The peak in the activity concentration of airborne 131I was observed around 30 March (1–3 mBq m−3 both in aerosol samples and gaseous iodine traps) with a slow decline afterwards. Aerosol samples of several hundred cubic metres of air showed 134Cs and 137Cs in detectable amounts along with 131I. The decay-corrected inventory of 131I fallout at ATOMKI was 2.1±0.1 Bq m−2 at maximum in the observation period. Dose-rate contribution calculations show that the radiological impact of this event at Hungarian locations was of no considerable concern.

Temporal changes in the transfer of accidentally released 137Cs from tree crowns to the forest floor after the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident

*Forests in Fukushima and neighboring prefectures accumulated atmospheric fallout of radioactive materials after the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident. We investigated the initial behavior of 137 Cs deposited in coniferous forest plantations. Furthermore, we conducted in-situ measurements of radioactivity in coniferous and broadleaf forest canopies. The results of this study demonstrated that more than 60% of the Fukushima reactor accident–derived radiocesium remained in coniferous forest canopies 5 months after initial deposition. Furthermore, in-situ measurements of radiocesium indicated that the radiocesium absorbed in forest canopies has been moving downward through the canopy to the forest floor.

Another Nuclear Plant To Close

The Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Station in Vernon, Vt., will permanently shut down in 2014, according to plant owner Entergy. The plant becomes the fifth nuclear power facility announced this year to close. In the Vermont Yankee case, Entergy’s announcement ends a long-simmering dispute between the utility and state officials and residents over the continued operation of the 620-MW plant. During its lifetime, the plant has faced opposition by antinuclear power activists, who became more strident after Japan’s Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station disaster in 2011. The Vermont Yankee plant design nearly mirrors that of the Fukushima reactor facility. “This was an agonizing decision and an extremely tough call for us,” says Leo P. Denault, Entergy’s chairman and CEO. He blamed the combination of a “transformational shift” in the energy marketplace driven by low natural gas prices and the resulting cheap electricity, as well as high operating costs to run ...

Absolute Efficiency Calibration of a Beta-Gamma Detector

Identification and quantification of nuclear events such as the Fukushima reactor failure and nuclear explosions rely heavily on the accurate measurement of radioxenon releases. One radioxenon detection method depends on detecting beta-gamma coincident events paired with a stable xenon measurement to determine the concentration of a plume. Like all measurements, the beta-gamma method relies on knowing the detection efficiency for each isotope measured. Several methods are commonly used to characterize the detection efficiency for a beta-gamma detector. The first and easiest method is to use a traceable (e.g., NIST) gamma standard to determine the detection efficiency. A second method determines the detection efficiencies relative to an already characterized detector. Finally, a potentially more accurate method is to use isotopes that the system is intended to measure and the form the system is intended to measure to perform an absolute efficiency calibration; in the case of a beta-gamma detector, this relies on radioxenon gas samples. The complication of the first method is it focuses only on the gamma detectors and does not offer a solution for determining the beta efficiency. The second method listed is not similarly constrained, however it relies on another detector to have a well-known efficiency calibration. The final method using actual radioxenon samples to make an absolute efficiency determination is the most desirable, but until recently, it was not possible to produce all four isotopically pure radioxenon isotopes. The production, by University of Texas (UT), of isotopically pure radioxenon has allowed the beta-gamma detectors to be calibrated using the absolute efficiency method. The first four radioxenon isotope calibration will be discussed in this paper.

Measurement of fallout with rain in Hiroshima and several sites in Japan from the Fukushima reactor accident

Fallout with rain from the Fukushima reactor accident was monitored for about two months in Higashi-Hiroshima City, Hiroshima, Japan, from March 20 to May 23, 2011. Gamma-ray (γ-ray) spectra measured using a low background HPGe spectrometer showed clear evidence of fission products—131I, 137Cs, and 134Cs. The 131I was observed on March 27 and April 8, while 137Cs and 134Cs were observed on March 27, April 18, and April 22. The 131I, 137Cs, and 134Cs activity concentrations in rainwater collected in Hiroshima reached 0.44 ± 0.09 on April 8, 0.17 ± 0.01 on April 18, and 0.15 ± 0.01 Bq/L on April 18, 2011, respectively. These activity levels were compared with global results collected from the Northern Hemisphere. Several samples of rainwater that were collected in Chiba (Kashiwa) on March 21, April 11, and May 12; Tokyo (Nerima) on March 21 and April 11; Osaka (Hirano) on April 8; Nara (Kitakatsuragi) on April 9; and Fukushima (Fukushima) on April 19, were also measured by our spectrometer and compared. Among these samples of rainwater collected at different locations in Japan, the one collected at Kashiwa City, Chiba Prefecture, on March 21 showed the highest activity concentrations of 6072 ± 1, 632 ± 4, 766 ± 3, 637 ± 1, 97.6 ± 0.8, and 752 ± 2 Bq/L for 131I, 132I, 132Te, 134Cs, 136Cs, and 137Cs, respectively. The health risks due to these high activity levels were considered in terms of several regulations. The ratio of the activites for the isotopes 131I to 137Cs and 134Cs to 137Cs were compared with the other measurements and discussed.

Interception of the Fukushima reactor accident‐derived137Cs, 134Cs and 131I by coniferous forest canopies

The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant accident resulted in extensive radioactive contamination of the surrounding forests. In this study, we analyzed fallout 137Cs, 134Cs, and 131I in rainwater, throughfall, and stemflow in coniferous forest plantations immediately after the accident. We show selective fractionation of the deposited radionuclides by the forest canopy and contrasting transfer of radiocesium and 131I from the canopy to the forest floor in association with precipitation. More than 60% of the total deposited radiocesium remained in the canopy after 5 month of the initial fallout, while marked penetration of the initially deposited 131I through the canopy was observed. The half‐lives of137Cs absorbed in the cypress and cedar canopies were calculated as 620 days and 890 days, respectively for the period of 0–160 days. The transfer of the deposited radiocesium from the canopy to the forest floor was slow compared with that of the spruce forest affected by fallout from the Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident.

월성 원자력발전소 중수 누출에 대한 언론의 부정적 보도 분석 : 주요 일간지의 1999년 10월 한 달간 월성 원자력발전소 중수 노출 사고 기사 내용 분석

원자력발전은 우리나라 전력의 약 30%를 공급하는 중요한 전력 공급 수단중의 하나이다. 그러나 2011년 3월 11일 일본 동북부를 강타한 규모 9.0의 대지진으로 인해 발생한 후쿠시마 원전사고는 '국내 원자력 발전은 불안하다'는 불안감을 조성하고 있다. 이러한 불신의 요인은 여러 가지가 있지만 부정확한 언론보도도 일조하고 있다. 이 논문은 1999년 10월 4일 발생한 월성원전 3호기 중수누출에 관한 당시 언론보도 내용 분석을 통해 문제점을 파악하고, 바람직한 언론보도에 대해 알아보기로 한다. Nuclear power provides 30% of our country's power, which acts as one of the most important power sources. But on March 11, 2011, the earthquake that hit Northeast Japan with a 9.0 magnitude, known as the Fukushima Reactor Leak Incident has created fear in the public's mind that 'nuclear power is unstable'. The reason for such distrust are many but inaccurate reports of the incident by the media has added to the fear. This paper will analyze the contents of the media report of the heavy water leakage in reactor 3 at the Wolsong Nuclear Power Plant on October 4, 1999 to discover the problematic areas and ascertain a more appropriate method of media coverage.

Parallel radioisotope collection and analysis in response to the Fukushima release

Two independent radionuclide aerosol air samplers were operated at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory in close proximity during the Fukushima reactor releases. One system was an automated aerosol collection and analysis unit, whereas the other was a manual sampler of simpler design. The samples collected from each sampler showed correlation in radionuclide activity, although some variations were observed. During this unique event, the small variations observed between the co-located air samplers illustrate the effectiveness of a way to acquire useful parallel samples for scientific purposes. The results in radionuclide activity concentration show that, in some circumstances, use of a manual high volume air sampler in parallel to a complex automated sampler can produce results that are of comparable quality to International Monitoring System samples.

The Energy Turnaround

When the tsunami hit the Fukushima atomic plant in Japan in March 2011, causing the reactor disaster, it was impossible to predict the consequences for the future of energy supply. Many countries have considerably strengthened their activities since then to realize an energy turnaround, i.e., a switch from nuclear power and fossil fuels to a more sustainable energy supply with increased use of regenerative energy resources such as wind or sun. Whereas only 55 states had political ambitions to expand the use of renewable energies in 2005, this number has increased to about 190 states in 2012. Also a change in attitudes can be observed. Early in 2012, more than 70 % of the French supported a phase-out of nuclear power – even though France was worldwide frontrunner in this area with a 75 % nuclear powered energy supply in the end of 2010. Germany takes an uncompromising approach in that it has officially decided to phase out nuclear power completely by 2022, although the economically strong parts in the country’s south receive more than 50 % of their electricity from nuclear power plants. This development towards a nuclear phase-out, which can be observed in other countries to a lesser extent, can be considered – in the jargon of BISE – as a ‘revolution’ more than an ‘evolution’. A revolution always comes with risks, but also offers opportunities. In the following we will show that the energy turnaround opens up a wide range of opportunities – if it is addressed responsibly and with a well-conceived plan. First of all it should be mentioned that this ‘revolution’ may be a current topic, but in principle is not a new one. Business & Information Systems Engineering (BISE) addressed this issue in a very early stage. For example, in issue 4/2008, the high potential of IS beyond Green IT regarding an energy turnaround was pointed out. Exactly one year later, in BISE 4/2009, the responsibility of our discipline for our planet and the threat of a worldwide resource crisis were discussed. The editorial 1/2012 and the corresponding special focus issue focused on “Smart Grids” and their relevance for the energy turnaround. All in all, we can see that the international community was aware of the energy turnaround’s relevance even before the Fukushima reactor disaster. But this is not sufficient. Rather, to ensure the success of the energy turnaround it is essential that single countries do not indulge in blind activism. This is especially important because the aims associated with the energy turnaround, such as an increased use of regenerative energies, will lead to major challenges (e.g., it is Germany’s goal to increase the use of regenerative energies from 20 % in 2011 to at least 35 % in 2020). Some of these challenges are briefly mentioned in the following: • The yield of renewable energies is often difficult to plan and control – e.g., wind and solar energy can only be extracted during suitable weather conditions. This frequently leads to a mismatch between the times of supply and demand. • These supply risks require energy storage and conventional power plants. Construction projects for energy storage are often in conflict with current regulations concerning environmental protection or are unpopular with the public. Moreover, many concepts regarding the storage of energy are still in research and development phases and thus cannot yet be used commercially. Also, construction projects for conventional power plants are often highly unpopular within the local population. • Onshore wind parks also have a negative impact on nature and hence are more and more subject to critical valuation by the public. • The transport of renewable energy requires a massive expansion of the super grid at national as well as international levels. In Germany alone, about 400 kilometers of the current distribution system would have to be enhanced and further 850 kilometers would have to be newly built until 2015. This seems challenging considering that Germany constructed only 90 kilometers from 2006 until 2011. According to the “dena-Netzstudie II”, a further 3600 kilometers are supposedly needed by 2020. Also,