Fruit Tree Planting Research Articles

К вопросу об озеленении города Нахичевани-на-Дону в XIX – начале ХХ века

Urban improvement includes landscaping – part of the city’s public administration. We consider the expe-rience in this area of the city of Nakhichevan-on-Don, whose residents from the very beginning have been planting orchards and fruit trees. Not always this experience was positive because of the lack of irrigation, later gardens and parks began to be laid in more suitable places, such as at the Cathedral Square. Its southern part was later named Boulevard. In the 1880s, the Alexander Garden was planted on the western outskirts of Nakhichevan. It was located where the city forges were demolished. The garden became a favor-ite place for citizens to relax. At the same time, green spaces appeared on the north-eastern outskirts of the city, better known as the Balabanov groves. The city public administration divided them into several sections. A gardener and a forester were engaged in the care of the groves, they thinned out overgrown areas and formed clearings for walks through the groves. The gardens of the Clerk and Commercial Clubs were also created. On one of the outskirts, a city nursery of the Society of Physical, Agricultural Labor appeared.

Mapping Fruit-Tree Plantation Using Sentinel-1/2 Time Series Images with Multi-Index Entropy Weighting Dynamic Time Warping Method

Mapping Fruit-Tree Plantation Using Sentinel-1/2 Time Series Images with Multi-Index Entropy Weighting Dynamic Time Warping Method

Object-oriented multi-scale segmentation and multi-feature fusion-based method for identifying typical fruit trees in arid regions using Sentinel-1/2 satellite images

Fruit tree identification that is quick and precise lays the groundwork for scientifically evaluating orchard yields and dynamically monitoring planting areas. This study aims to evaluate the applicability of time series Sentinel-1/2 satellite data for fruit tree classification and to provide a new method for accurately extracting fruit tree species. Therefore, the study area selected is the Tarim Basin, the most important fruit-growing region in northwest China. The main focus is on identifying several major fruit tree species in this region. Time series Sentinel-1/2 satellite images acquired from the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform are used for the study. A multi-scale segmentation approach is applied, and six categories of features including spectral, phenological, texture, polarization, vegetation index, and red edge index features are constructed. A total of forth-four features are extracted and optimized using the Vi feature importance index to determine the best time phase. Based on this, an object-oriented (OO) segmentation combined with the Random Forest (RF) method is used to identify fruit tree species. To find the best method for fruit tree identification, the results are compared with three other widely used traditional machine learning algorithms: Support Vector Machine (SVM), Gradient Boosting Decision Tree (GBDT), and Classification and Regression Tree (CART). The results show that: (1) the object-oriented segmentation method helps to improve the accuracy of fruit tree identification features, and September satellite images provide the best time window for fruit tree identification, with spectral, phenological, and texture features contributing the most to fruit tree species identification. (2) The RF model has higher accuracy in identifying fruit tree species than other machine learning models, with an overall accuracy (OA) and a kappa coefficient (KC) of 94.60% and 93.74% respectively, indicating that the combination of object-oriented segmentation and RF algorithm has great value and potential for fruit tree identification and classification. This method can be applied to large-scale fruit tree remote sensing classification and provides an effective technical means for monitoring fruit tree planting areas using medium-to-high-resolution remote sensing images.

Quantifying aboveground biomass, soil organic carbon and erosion with a detailed crop map and PESERA model in the Yangtze River Basin

AbstractSoil erosion represents a primary threat to soil systems with adverse implications for ecosystem services, crop production, potable water and carbon storage. While numerous studies have quantified the spatial distribution of aboveground Biomass (AGB), soil erosion and soil organic carbon (SOC) in the Yangtze River Basin (YRB), limited attention has been given to assessing the contributions of different land use types and especially crop types to AGB, soil erosion and SOC. In most studies, cropland is taken as a land use class, while detailed crop types and rotation patterns, and their effect on soil erosion and SOC, vary significantly. In this study, we used the Metronamica model to generate a detailed crop rotation and distribution map across the YRB and subsequently employed the Pan‐European Soil Erosion Risk Assessment (PESERA) model to simulate the spatial distribution of AGB, soil erosion and SOC on a monthly basis. PESERA model simulations indicate an average soil erosion rate across the entire YRB of 7.7 ton/ha/yr, with erosion hotspots concentrated in the Sichuan Basin and the central‐southern regions. The southwestern region and western Sichuan show elevated levels of AGB and SOC, while the eastern plains display lower levels. Erosion rates are lowest in areas designated as artificial land, pasture and grassland, whereas croplands and fruit tree plantations experience the highest erosion rates. In terms of crop types, the highest erosion rates and lowest AGB are observed under fallow and potato cultivation, while the lowest erosion rates and highest AGB are found in rice‐wheat rotation fields. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study taking detailed crop types and patterns into account while evaluating their effect at a relatively large scale (i.e., YRB). These findings can help to develop sustainable soil management and (cropping) conservation strategies.

Family farming in climate change: Strategies for resilient and sustainable food systems

Family farming plays a pivotal role in ensuring household food security and bolstering the resilience of food systems against climate change. Traditional agricultural practices are evolving into context-specific, climate-resilient systems such as family farming, homestead gardening, and urban agriculture. This study examines the ways in which family farming can foster climate-resilient food systems amidst climate vulnerabilities. A systematic literature review spanning the past 22 years was undertaken to develop a conceptual framework. From this review, 37 pertinent documents were identified, leading to the creation of a context-specific, climate-resilient food system framework. The research posits that family farming facilitates easy access to food and nutrition by capitalizing on family-sourced land, labor, and capital, and by securing access to technology and markets. Each facet of family farming is intricately linked with sustainability principles. Local adaptation strategies employed by climate-vulnerable households can diminish their vulnerability and augment their adaptive, absorptive, and transformative capacities, enabling them to establish a climate-resilient food system. The research further reveals that farming families employ a myriad of strategies to fortify their food systems. These include crop diversification, adjusting planting times, cultivating high-value crops and fish, planting fruit trees, rearing poultry and livestock, and leveraging their land, labor, and resources—including their homesteads—to access food and nutrition. This study endorses the climate-resilient family farming framework and offers multiple metrics for assessing the resilience of family farming in developing countries.

Sustainable forest management for nut and fuelwood production in the Jalalabad region, Kyrgyzstan: insights from local communities

Jalalabad region in the Kyrgyz Republic is home to the world’s largest natural walnut (Juglans regia L.) forests and pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) forests. These nut-fruit forests serve as the primary source of income for local people; however, deforestation has led to a decline in the availability of these resources. Wood from the forest is also used as a crucial energy source for cooking and heating in this region, despite state protection of the walnut forest due to a lack of alternative energy sources. This study aimed to explore solutions to restore nut-fruit forests while providing a fuelwood source and improving the income of local people. Qualitative research methods were employed, including semi-structured interviews and survey questionnaires with farmers and central and local government officials. The study investigated the main environmental problem of forest degradation and the challenges of forest management, such as livestock and complicated lease arrangements, and determined possible government support and incentives for local communities to participate in forest rehabilitation, such as planting instead of paying lease fees. The findings indicated that a tree-based farming approach can be a promising alternative land-use solution. Seventy-four percent of local farmers expressed their readiness to plant fruit trees and fast-growing tree species to meet their demand for fuelwood and improve their livelihoods if the government can provide temporary fencing support. The study also highlighted the need for capacity building for farmers to learn proper planting, managing, and harvesting for more sustainable practices. Policymakers need to modify legislation through simplified and incentive-based forest lease arrangements.

Irrigation and Fertilization: A Comprehensive Analysis of Their Influences on Qualitative Indices in Two Plum Varieties

The chief aim of this study is to provide information regarding the value and effectiveness of localized irrigation applied to plum trees grown in nurseries; this study also emphasizes how irrigation impacts various qualitative indices in the context of different fertilization treatments. By increasing production in the nursery, the application of differentiated rules for fertilization and irrigation is expected to yield vigorous, healthy fruit tree planting material. As in the case of all cultivated plants, fruit trees in nurseries are primarily dependent on soil and climatic conditions. This research was carried out in a private fruit tree nursery in the northwestern part of Romania. The soil taxonomic unit identified on the research field was arable, weakly glaciated loamy clay on fluvial deposits. The two plum cultivars that were studied were Stanley and Cacanska Lepotica, both of which are valued for the high caliber of their fruit. This research was conducted using a 4 × 2 × 4 trifactorial experiment, with irrigation acting as the primary factor, cultivar as the secondary factor, and fertilization as the tertiary factor. During this research, the fertilization treatments proved to have the most significant impact (34.50%) on stem diameter compared with irrigation (20.67%) and cultivar (5.63%), given that the cultivar had no discernible influence on the increase in the diameters of the grafted trees.

Potential Economic and Ecosystem Performances of Some Mediterranean Fruit Plants in an Urban Context

This study focuses on the possibility of using fruit tree species, from an urban area in central Italy, to evaluate their possible productive, ecosystem, and economic contribution. The realization of the food forest was conducted through the use of a web app that can evaluate the climatic and ecosystem performance of trees in the city. This simulation can provide the city’s government with useful information on the ecosystem and the socioeconomic benefits of planting fruit trees in an urban park. Among the four chosen species, both Ficus carica and Morus nigra showed good potential fruit production of 1300 kg and 865 kg and a CO2 storage of 2.5 and 1.5 tons. The production and economic potentials from selling the fruits of the selected species were evaluated, and the Morus nigra species showed the highest economic value over a 50-year period of about 6000 USD, with an average price of 7 USD/kg. Another positive aspect of edible food forest landscapes is their ability to give rise to an ecosystem and habitat that can attract animals, birds, and wildlife, consequently improving urban ecosystem biodiversity.

Identification of community fruit tree preference and associated problems in South West Ethiopia

Globally, preferences for fruit trees have fluctuated over time. However, the most desirable attribute of cultivated fruit tree species has not been consistent across all species and locations. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine farmers' preferences for fruit tree species and the associated problems they face in four different study sites, categorized by gender and family size. Equal sampling techniques were used in each selected study site, resulting in a total of 120 household heads participating in structured interviews. The data collected was then analyzed using SPSS version 26 software, utilizing the Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis tests. Across the study sites, a total of fourteen fruit tree species from ten families were found to be preferred. The preference for fruit trees based on gender showed no significant difference among respondents between kebeles per woreda. However, the preference for fruit trees based on family size showed a significant difference between kebeles per woreda. The number of species preferred for their subsistence value was twice as large as those preferred for commercial reasons. The proportions of these preferred species and the percentage of observed problems with fruit trees varied significantly across the studied sites. Of all the interviewed household heads, 70% in Fenika, 36.6% in Kite, 66.6% in Shesheka, and 50% in Kometa kebeles encountered severe problems during fruit tree planting. The most common problems identified were disease or pest infestation, lack of expert support, land availability, knowledge, and access to seedlings. In order to address these issues, it is important to utilize indigenous knowledge and scientifically tested research approaches to alleviate the factors that influence farmers' preferences.

Ecotourism: Another Benefit of Agro-Silvo-Fishery and Trigona Apiculture in Peatland Ecosystem of Baru Village, Banyuasin, South Sumatra

Agro-silvo-fishery and Trigona apiculture are two business models developed in the peatland ecosystem in Baru Village, Banyuasin District, South Sumatra. Since the beginning of 2022, two demo plots have been built in the same village landscape as part of the business model implementation. The system‘s agro-silvo-fishery was established by constructing a pond around a paddy field and planting betelnut, vegetables, and fruit trees. Local fish that had acclimated to the acidic peatland habitat were captured during the flooding and raised in the ponds. In the constrained biophysical and chemical conditions of swampy terrain, this method is thought to be the greatest way to provide a variety of revenue. Individual farmers cannot afford the costs associated with setting up this system, especially when it comes to constructing the pond and dykes. Individual farmers cannot afford the costs associated with establishing this system, especially when it comes to constructing the pond and dykes. Hence, support from the district and village government and program partners is valuable. The farmer group harvested corn and vegetables from the dykes and rice from the paddy fields in the first year, and fish were not ready for harvest. However, the local BUMDes saved the day by creating weekly regular fishing activities and competition events, generating revenue from tickets. Moreover, the Trigona apiculture became a popular place for those outside the village to learn free of charge. Based on profitability analysis, the NPV of establishing agro-silvo-fishery is Rp103.036.769 per 0.8 ha for 30 years, with additional income from ecotourism is estimated to reach Rp21.600.000 per year. The established demonstration plot has the potential to become an ecotourism destination, and the key is to maintain the surrounding flowers and plants as the source of food for bees and the water condition for the fish.

PROGRAM PEMBERDAYAAN MASYARAKAT DALAM PENANGANAN STUNTING DI KELURAHAN PANCUR, TAKTAKAN, SERANG BANTEN

Stunting is one of the strategic problems experienced by people in Banten, especially in the Pancur sub-district, Serang, Banten. The socialization and training activity "Stunting Prevention" is a form of implementation of the Real Work Lecture (KKN) theme in Banten. This activity will be carried out in August – September 2023, located in Pancur Village, Taktakan District, Serang City. The stunting prevention outreach and training program is carried out by adopting the knowledge and importance of drinking milk which explains that food consists of carbohydrates, protein, vitamins, minerals and water. Partners involved in the KKN program include children, teenagers, young people, PKK mothers, Posyandu Group and the surrounding community. Furthermore, activities to socialize parenting patterns and meet the nutritional needs of mothers and children need to be increased. Then, training on washing hands using soap by implementing 7 steps on how to wash hands using soap to kill microorganisms went smoothly. The "Lungs of the World" program by planting fruit trees, such as manga, rambutan and longan as a source of oxygen and useful for public consumption. It is hoped that the KKN program will continue to be implemented by Muhammadiyah Tangerang University as a forum for students to actualize knowledge, insight and gain experience to help overcome problems and interact in society.

Sparse-shading red net improves water relations in Valencia orange trees

Top-netting technology improves crop microclimate, and its utilization in fruit tree plantations may mitigate deleterious weather effects. The technology is associated with improved tree water relations, and may result in significant water savings. Photoselective nets may provide additional, crop- and target-dependent, beneficial effects. A previous paper reported results of a five-year trial in Valencia orange, in which three nets were used, pearl, transparent and low shading red, in combination with three irrigation regimes, 100% (I100), standard commercial fertigation, and two reduced rates, 80% (I80) and 60% (I60). Among the different netting types, the combination of red nets and I80 resulted in the highest yield on a multi-annual basis. The current study provides data regarding water relations during stage II, i.e., cell expansion, of fruit development. The red net had higher radiation transmittance and canopy resistance than the pearl net. The higher resistance is an expression of the lower transpiration of the red net, monitored by sap flow, as compared to the other treatments, especially under deficient irrigation. The beneficial effect of the red net was also evidenced from multi-annual stem water potential. These data supplement the enhanced yield effect of the red net, suggesting they are associated with its spectral properties.

Optimized Extraction Method of Fruit Planting Distribution Based on Spectral and Radar Data Fusion of Key Time Phase

With China’s fruit tree industry becoming the largest in the world, accurately understanding the spatial distribution of fruit tree growing areas is crucial for promoting socio-economic development and rural revitalization. Remote sensing offers unprecedented opportunities for fruit tree monitoring. However, previous research has mainly focused on UAV and near-ground remote sensing, with limited accuracy in obtaining fruit tree distribution information through satellite remote sensing. In this study, we utilized the Google Earth Engine (GEE) remote sensing cloud platform and integrated data from Sentinel-1, Sentinel-2, and SRTM sources. We constructed a feature space by extracting original band features, vegetation index features, polarization features, terrain features, and texture features. The sequential forward selection (SFS) algorithm was employed for feature optimization, and a combined machine learning and object-oriented classification model was used to accurately extract fruit tree crop distributions by comparing key temporal phases of fruit trees. The results revealed that the backscatter coefficient features from Sentinel-1 had the highest contribution to the classification, followed by the original band features and vegetation index features from Sentinel-2, while the terrain features had a relatively smaller contribution. The highest classification accuracy for jujube plantation areas was observed in November (99.1% for user accuracy and 96.6% for producer accuracy), whereas the lowest accuracy was found for pear tree plantation areas in the same month (93.4% for user accuracy and 89.0% for producer accuracy). Among the four different classification methods, the combined random forest and object-oriented (RF + OO) model exhibited the highest accuracy (OA = 0.94, Kappa = 0.92), while the support vector machine (SVM) classification method had the lowest accuracy (OA = 0.52, Kappa = 0.31). The total fruit tree plantation area in Aksu City in 2022 was estimated to be 64,000 hectares, with walnut, jujube, pear, and apple trees accounting for 42.5%, 20.6%, 19.3%, and 17.5% of the total fruit tree area, respectively (27,200 hectares, 13,200 hectares, 12,400 hectares, and 11,200 hectares, respectively). The SFS feature optimization and RF + OO-combined classification model algorithm selected in this study effectively mapped the fruit tree planting areas, enabling the estimation of fruit tree planting areas based on remote sensing satellite image data. This approach facilitates accurate fruit tree industry and real-time crop monitoring and provides valuable support for fruit tree planting management by the relevant departments.

Diversity and spatio-temporal variation of phlebotomine sand flies (Phlebotominae: Diptera: Psychodidae) in three different types of land use and seasons in the state of Veracruz, Mexico

A sand fly fauna inventory was conducted in an ecotourism area of central Veracruz, Mexico. We recorded and analyzed the sand fly diversity at 3 different land use types (well-preserved forest, fruit-tree plantations, and human settlements) with sampling conducted 3 times in 1 year (dry, rainy, and cold seasons). A total of 891 specimens of 6 genera and 14 species was recorded. High diversity was detected in the preserved area due to a high species richness and abundance as compared with the fruit-tree plantations and human settlements, respectively. In relation to the seasons of the year, high diversity was found in the cold season as compared with the rainy and dry seasons. The variation of the Phlebotominae assemblage in space and time in the ecotourism zone is described, serving as a baseline to recommend preventive actions to settlers and travelers. Additionally, we include new species records for the state of Veracruz.

Climate change and the livelihoods of food crop farmers in Lesotho: Lessons for the implementation of the national climate change adaptation strategy.

The vast majority of Lesotho's rural population is reliant on agriculture for survival. However, Lesotho, Southern Africa is extremely vulnerable to the effects of climate change, which has a negative impact on rural livelihoods. Furthermore, despite the fiscal challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic, Lesotho's National Climate Change Policy Implementation Strategy has been hampered by implementation issues and has yet to be implemented. This sparked the necessity for this research, which aims to inform the government of Lesotho on how farmers are combating climate change in their own tiny way. This study employs a survey to gather data from 200 farmers from farming villages across the country's 10 regions. According to the findings of this study, farmers have experienced climate change in the areas of drying rivers, delayed on-set of rainfall, and excessive frost or cold. As a result of these events, farmers have experienced poorer agricultural yields, increased insect and disease attacks, and lower-than-normal harvests. The adaptation methods the farmers are using include the employment of indigenous technology for pest and disease control, fruit tree planting, conservation agriculture (water and soil conservation), and rainwater harvest storage for use during dry seasons. Some of these adaptation strategies are feared to cause further environmental challenges for Lesotho. Therefore, in order to enhance the lives of Lesotho's farmers, the government of Lesotho should consider implementing the National Climate Change Policy Implementation Strategy.

THE ECONOMICS OF JABARIK CULTIVATION IN ACHIEVING FOOD SECURITY FOR THE FAMILIES OF SMALL FARMERS IN SOUTH KORDOFAN (KADOUGLI LOCALITY), SUDAN

This study was conducted in the South Kordofan state (Kadugli locality) in June 2019 with the aim of knowledge the role of jabriek in investigation household food security for small farmers in the locality. In obtaining information, the study relied on the primary sources represented in the direct questionnaire with the targeted families, in addition to individual interviews. Information was also collected from scientific references and previous studies related to the study. the study targeted 90 male and female farmers, where it relied on sampling randomly, and the data was analyzed by the (SPSS and Excel). The obtained data were presented and summarized in the form of tables and graphs, which contained percentages. Through the results of the study, it became it turns out that 86.6% are cultivating for self-sufficiency and marketing. We find that 39.6%, 4.2%, and 4.2% of small farmers breeding goats, cows and sheep, respectively, to produce milk and benefit from their derivatives. We also find that 21.2 percent of farmers are interested in planting fruit trees in their homes because of their contribution to providing the product from for food and marketing the surplus, and 66.7% of farmers make an effective contribution to the cultivation of these grasses in educating their children in the various educational stages, and also contributes to receiving health services at a rate of 40.8%. There are two planting loops (summer and winter). In the summer loop, the cereal crops are planted such as sorghum and cash crops such as grunts and sesame, while in the winter loop, vegetables are grown, whether they are leafy, carrot or fruit. When comparing women and men in relying on the implantation of gypsophila, there is a greater percentage of women compared to men. Finally, it became clear that there are cumulative experiences of small farmers in the study area through their familiarity with agricultural operations and pest control methods, and their interest in cultivating improved seeds. The study recommendation:  Encouraging families in (rural and urban) to adopt the cultivation of jabrik and home farming, even if it is in the smallest area.  Training small farmers on organic farming and food processing.  Training them on value chains.  Connecting them to marketing channels and markets

Spatial Distribution Characteristics of Suitable Planting Areas for Pyrus Species under Climate Change in China.

Planting suitability determines the distribution and yield of crops in a given region which can be greatly affected by climate change. In recent years, many studies have shown that carbon dioxide fertilization effects increase the productivity of temperate deciduous fruit trees under a changing climate, but the potential risks to fruit tree planting caused by a reduction in suitable planting areas are rarely reported. In this study, Maxent was first used to investigate the spatial distribution of five Pyrus species in China, and the consistency between the actual production area and the modeled climatically suitable area under the current climatic conditions were determined. In addition, based on Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6, three climate models were used to simulate the change in suitable area and the migration trend for different species under different emission scenarios (SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, SSP3-7.0 and SSP5-8.5). The results showed that the suitable area for pear was highly consistent with the actual main production area under current climate conditions. The potential planting areas of P. ussuriensis showed a downward trend under all emission paths from 2020 to 2100; other species showed a trend of increasing first and then decreasing or slowing down and this growth effect was the most obvious in 2020-2040. Except for P. pashia, other species showed a migration trend toward a high latitude, and the trend was more prominent under the high emission path. Our results emphasize the response difference between species to climate change, and the method of consistency analysis between suitable planting area and actual production regions cannot only evaluate the potential planting risk but also provide a reasonable idea for the accuracy test of the modeled results. This work has certain guiding and reference significance for the protection of pear germplasm resources and the prediction of yield.

Flowers and Fruits Abortion in Fruit Trees ... Causes and Solutions: A review

The history of planting fruit trees dates back to the presence of mankind on Earth. The people’s interest in cultivating it has increased with the progress of their civilization, as the fruit has become important in human food and his environment. The fruit-growing areas of both types, evergreen and deciduous, spread from north to south of Iraq. Palm cultivation is concentrated in the southern provinces, while palm, citrus, olive, pomegranate and others are concentrated in the central provinces. In the northern regions, the cultivation of apples, grapes, olives, stone kernels and Nut fruits is widespread. The production of fruit trees in many countries of the world plays a major “economic” role in their renaissance because the production of these trees has a direct relationship to increasing national income. The production of these trees requires the employment of qualified technical labor, the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, modern irrigation systems, tree breeding and pruning, As well as the production of seedlings in nurseries. It has been observed that fruit trees are directly related to the food industries, such as preserving fruits by freezing or drying, and the manufacture of jams and juice, and what these industries need of high technologies. Moreover, the fruits of fruit trees, whether through fresh consumption or processing, have a high nutritional value due to the sugars, oils, fats, protein, mineral salts, vitamins and others. The abortion of flowers and newly set fruits in fruit trees varies according to different species, varieties, environmental conditions and horticultural service operations. Abortion may be desirable when the number of flowers and fruits set on the tree is many, and this is called (natural thinning). While the abortion is harmful if the number of flowers and fruits is few on the tree, which results in a lack of yield later.

They Have All Gone Away: Farms, Families, and Change

They Have All Gone AwayFarms, Families, and Change Paula Nelson Curtis Harnack, We Have All Gone Away. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2011 (reprint of 1973 edition). 188 pp. $19.95 (paper). Sara DeLuca, Dancing the Cows Home: A Wisconsin Girlhood. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1996. 232 pp. $15.95 (paper). Sara DeLuca, The Crops Look Good: News from a Midwestern Family Farm. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2015. 254 pp. $17.95 (paper). Farming was once central to American life. In 1790, ninety-six percent of the population lived in rural areas, most on farms; in 1860, eighty percent of Americans still lived on farms or in small towns. Farming was the route to independence, self-sufficiency, security, and prosperity. The work was hard, but it brought reassuring seasonal routines: the births and deaths of livestock; planting, growing, and harvesting crops; family births, maturity, aging, deaths. Farms provided an organic unity that conveyed lessons about nature and the human condition that were sometimes hard to learn. For some families, the farm became a sacred entity, standing apart from and above the family. Even in today's modern, super-mechanized agriculture, there remains great pride in having had multiple generations farm the same ground. There is regret, even grief, when the farm is sold and bulldozers erase decades of family history. Post-Civil War urbanization and industrialization, however, created new technologies, new opportunities, and new values that undermined agriculture's cultural primacy. Working set hours for pay appealed to farm children, as did chances for entertainment and the possibility of socializing [End Page 213] with people beyond family and the farm neighborhood. By the 1920s, slightly more Americans lived in cities than in rural areas. Farm mechanization and consolidation accelerated the trend: farmers made up forty-one percent of the workforce in 1900; 21.5 percent in 1930; four percent in 1970; and only 1.9 percent in 2000–2002.1 Although all farm families struggled with the vagaries of nature, low crop prices, and an over-abundance of work, they were not all the same, as the books reviewed here illustrate. Both authors describe farm families' lives and labors from the late nineteenth through late twentieth centuries, but some reveal significant dissent from the belief that farming offered the best life. By the end of each memoir, no one from these families farmed. The poignant title of Curtis Harnack's classic memoir about his extended family in Plymouth County, Iowa, We Have All Gone Away, sums up the history of midwestern agriculture. The careful planning and hard work of his grandfather John Harnack, who acquired 240 acres of northwest Iowa land in the 1880s, led to prosperity and more comforts than most farm families enjoyed. A skilled carpenter, he raised a landmark barn and other outbuildings, planted fruit trees and berry bushes, built a large house to replace the first home, a 6x10 cabin, and created a successful farm. By 1900 the family had running water and a complete bathroom in the house. They were prosperous, even during the Great Depression. Curtis Harnack grew up in an atypical family arrangement. His mother, Carrie Meyer, earned a college degree and taught school for ten years before marrying Henry Harnack in 1920. They shared the substantial farm home with Henry's brother, Jack, and his wife, Lizzie Meyer, Carrie's youngest sister. Curtis, born in 1927, was the youngest of four. When Henry Harnack died of pneumonia six months after Curtis's birth, Carrie decided to stay on the farm with Jack, Lizzie, and their three children so that her children would have a father figure in Uncle Jack. Nonetheless, she made sure that her children knew that they would leave the farm for brighter futures elsewhere. Uncle Jack had never wanted to farm, but fell into it when his father retired. Lizzie, much to her disappointment, had to leave school after eighth grade to care for her ailing stepmother and do the household work. Unhappy with their lot, Jack and Lizzie also expected their children to move up and out. Despite the wariness of the second generation of Harnacks toward farm life, Harnack's memoir...

Orchard Management and Incorporation of Biochemical and Molecular Strategies for Improving Drought Tolerance in Fruit Tree Crops.

Water scarcity is one of the greatest concerns for agronomy worldwide. In recent years, many water resources have been depleted due to multiple factors, especially mismanagement. Water resource shortages lead to cropland expansion, which likely influences climate change and affects global agriculture, especially horticultural crops. Fruit yield is the final aim in commercial orchards; however, drought can slow tree growth and/or decrease fruit yield and quality. It is therefore necessary to find approaches to solve this problem. The main objective of this review is to discuss the most recent horticultural, biochemical, and molecular strategies adopted to improve the response of temperate fruit crops to water stress. We also address the viability of cultivating fruit trees in dry areas and provide precise protection methods for planting fruit trees in arid lands. We review the main factors involved in planting fruit trees in dry areas, including plant material selection, regulated deficit irrigation (DI) strategies, rainwater harvesting (RWH), and anti-water stress materials. We also provide a detailed analysis of the molecular strategies developed to combat drought, such as Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeat (CRISPR) through gene overexpression or gene silencing. Finally, we look at the molecular mechanisms associated with the contribution of the microbiome to improving plant responses to drought.