Frugivorous Species Research Articles

Divergent seed dispersal outcomes: Interactions between seed, disperser, and forest traits.

Animals disperse seeds in various ways that affect seed deposition sites and seed survival, ultimately shaping plant species distribution, community composition, and ecosystem structure. Some animal species can disperse seeds through multiple pathways (e.g., defecation, regurgitation, epizoochory), each likely producing distinct seed dispersal outcomes. We studied how seed traits (size and toughness) interact with disperser species to influence seed dispersal pathway and how this ultimately shapes the proportion of seeds deposited in various habitat types. We focused on three frugivorous species of duikers (African forest antelopes) in the Dja Faunal Reserve, a tropical rainforest in southern Cameroon. Duikers can both defecate and regurgitate seeds, the latter predominantly occurring during rumination at their bedding sites (or "nests"). We located duiker nests and dungs along 18 linear 1-km-transects to assess: (1) how seed traits affect the likelihood of dispersal via defecation versus regurgitation, (2) if defecated versus regurgitated seeds are deposited at different rates in different forest types (assessed by indigenous Baka), microhabitats, and forest structural attributes (measured by drone lidar), and (3) if these differ between three duiker species that vary in size and diel activity patterns. We found that duikers predominantly defecated small seeds (<3 mm length) and regurgitated larger and tougher seeds (>10 mm length), the latter including 25 different plant species. The three duiker species varied in their nesting habits, with nocturnal bay duikers (Cephalophus dorsalis) nesting in dense understory vegetation at proportions 3-4 times higher than Peter's and yellow-backed duikers (Cephalophus callipygus and Cephalophus silvicultor). As a result, bay duikers deposited larger regurgitated seeds at a higher rate in habitats with denser understory where lianas and palms predominate and near fallen trees. This directed regurgitation seed deposition likely plays an important and unique role in forest succession and structure. This study highlights the importance of ungulate seed dispersal by regurgitation, a vastly understudied process that could impact many ecosystems given the prevalence of ruminating ungulates worldwide.

Pongo's ecological diversity from dental macrowear analysis

AbstractObjectivesOrangutans are found in tropical rainforests of Borneo (Pongo pygmaeus) and Sumatra (Pongo abelii and Pongo tapanuliensis), and they are primarily considered frugivorous species. However, ecological studies reported differences in feeding behavior between these species. P. pygmaeus spend more time feeding on low‐quality foods, such as bark and tough vegetation than do P. abelii. The aim of this study is to investigate if there is any geographic variation in molar macrowear pattern between the two species.MethodsWe analyzed the macrowear pattern of second mandibular molars of 58 orangutan specimens combining dental topographic measurements (occlusal relief index, percentage of dentine exposure, and percentage of enamel wear) with the occlusal fingerprint analysis method.ResultsThe molar macrowear patterns of P. abelii and P. pygmaeus show no significant differences in most of the variables examined in this study. While P. pygmaeus molars are generally characterized by flatter occlusal morphology with slightly larger crushing and grinding areas than those of P. abelii, these differences are not statistically significant. However, we do observe a more variable wear in P. pygmaeus.ConclusionsSimilarities in molar macrowear patterns between the two species could be linked to overlapping long‐term diets, primarily composed of ripe and pulpy fruits. Dental macrowear is a cumulative process that occurs during the individual's lifetime, and it may be difficult to detect seasonal changes through its examination. Future studies could integrate tooth micro‐ and macrowear data for a better understanding of primate dental ecology.

Thermal and morphometric correlates of the extremely low rate of energy use in a wild frugivorous primate, the Mayotte lemur

Primates spend on average half as much energy as other placental mammals while expressing a wide range of lifestyles. However, little is known about how primates adapt their rate of energy use in the context of natural environmental variations. Using doubly labelled water, behavioral and accelerometric methods, we measured the total energy expenditure (TEE) and body composition of a population of Eulemur fulvus (N = 12) living in an agroforest in Mayotte. We show that the TEE of this medium-sized cathemeral primate is one of the lowest recorded to date in eutherians. Regression models show that individual variation in the rate of energy use is predicted by fat-free mass, body size, thigh thickness and maximum temperature. TEE is positively correlated with increasing temperature, suggesting that thermoregulation is an important component of the energy budget of this frugivorous species. Mass-specific TEE is only 10% lower than that of a closely related species previously studied in a gallery forest, consistent with the assertion that TEE varies within narrow physiological limits. As lemur communities include many species with unique thermoregulatory adaptations, circadian and/or seasonal temperature variations may have constituted a major selective pressure on the evolution of lemur metabolic strategies.

Contribution of small nocturnal lemurs to seed dispersal in Madagascar: A review

AbstractAnimal seed dispersers are crucial in tropical forests because they provide beneficial impacts to plants, from organisms to communities. Besides frugivorous species, omnivorous, small‐bodied, and nocturnal animals might also disperse seeds in their habitats; yet we know relatively little about their role and impacts. The Cheirogaleidae (dwarf and mouse lemurs) in Madagascar are examples of such animals, whose seed dispersal role has been overlooked until recently. Here, I provide an overview of their potential contribution to seed dispersal based on their ecological traits and future directions for studying seed dispersal ecology in Madagascar's forest ecosystems. The limited literature, published between 1971 and 2022, on the feeding ecology and seed dispersal services of the Cheirogaleidae shows that they could potentially disperse small‐sized seeds (&lt;15 mm). Also, they could surprisingly take seeds relatively long distances away from the parents (up to 1 km) despite their small body mass, both in disturbed and undisturbed forest habitats. The passage of seeds through their guts could also enhance seed germination and seedling survival. Only four Cheirogaleid species out of 40 are currently demonstrated to be effective seed dispersers. Studying the seed dispersal by small‐bodied and nocturnal primates could greatly inform their long‐term conservation as it will provide information for better awareness of their ecological role and needs.Abstract in Malagasy is available with online material.

Gut bacterial community profile of frugivorous bats from Cathedral Cave in Cavinti, Laguna, Philippines.

Here we report the 16S rRNA gene amplicon analysis of the gut microbiota of three frugivorous cave bat species from the Cathedral Cave in Cavinti, Laguna, Philippines. Among the bat species, the most abundant phyla are Proteobacteria and Firmicutes D.

Beyond head and wings: Unveiling influence of diet, body size, and phylogeny on the evolution of the femur in phyllostomid bats.

Phyllostomidae, the most diverse family of Neotropical bats, encompass 230 species with varied dietary habits and food acquisition methods. Their feeding niche diversification has shaped skull and wing morphologies through natural selection, reflecting food processing and flight strategies. Yet, evolution of bat hindlimbs, especially in phyllostomids, remains little understood. Previous studies highlighted the femur's morphology as a key to understanding the evolution of quadrupedalism in yangochiropteran bats, including the adept walking observed in vampire bats (Desmodontinae). Here, we aimed to describe the femoral morphological variation in Phyllostomidae, correlating this with body size and assessing the effects of phylogenetic history, dietary habits, and hindlimb usage. Analyzing 15 femoral traits from 45 species across 9 subfamilies through phylogenetically informed methods, we discovered a significant phylogenetic structure in femoral morphology. Allometric analysis indicated that body mass accounts for about 85% of the variance in phyllostomid femoral size and about 11% in femoral shape. Relatively smaller femurs showed to be typical in Stenodermatinae, Lonchophyllinae, and Glossophaginae, in contrast to the larger femurs of Phyllostominae, Desmodontinae, Micronycterinae, and Lonchorrhininae. Furthermore, extensive femur shape variation was detected, with the most distinct morphologies in vampire bats, followed by frugivorous species. Adaptive evolutionary models related to diet more effectively explained variations in femoral relative size and shape than stochastic models. Contrary to the conventional belief of limited functional demand on bat femurs, our findings suggest that femoral morphology is significantly influenced by functional demands associated with diet and food capture, in addition to being partially structured by body size and shared evolutionary history.

Land-use homogenization reduces the occurrence and diversity of frugivorous birds in a tropical biodiversity hotspot.

Understanding how human-modified landscapes maintain biodiversity and provide ecosystem services is crucial for establishing conservation practices. Given that responses to land-use are species-specific, it is crucial to understand how land-use changes may shape patterns of species diversity and persistence in human-modified landscapes. Here, we used a comprehensive data set on bird distribution from the Brazilian Atlantic Forest to understand how species richness and individual occurrences of frugivorous bird species responded to land-use spatial predictors and, subsequently, assess how ecological traits and phylogeny modulated these responses. Using Bayesian hierarchical modeling, we reveal that the richness of frugivorous birds was positively associated with the amount of native forest and negatively with both agriculture and pasture amount at the landscape scale. Conversely, the effect of these predictors on species occurrence and ecological traits was highly variable and presented a weak phylogenetic signal. Furthermore, land-use homogenization (i.e., the conversion of forest to pasture or agriculture) led to pervasive consequences for forest-dependent bird species, whereas several generalist species thrived in deforested areas, replacing those sensitive to habitat disturbances.

Seed-Bird co-occurrence networks in cocoa agroforests: Morphological matching analysis reveals shading effects on network organization

Tropical forests are highly vulnerable to ongoing deforestation, which often involves converting land for agricultural use. While tropical agroforests have been promoted as wildlife-friendly systems, limited information is available on the ability of agroforests to provide diverse fruits that attract birds and thus contribute to essential ecological processes, such as seed dispersal. Here, we evaluated the organization of tropical seed-bird co-occurrence networks in cocoa agroforests of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. Specifically, we investigated the influence of (i) landscape and local predictors in shaping the structure of seed-bird co-occurrence networks; and (ii) species traits in explaining their interactive role in the networks. We constructed matrices of presence-absence interactions based on morphological matching among the beak width of frugivorous bird species and the size of ornithochorous seed species (both native and exotic species), using field data of seed rain and understory bird surveys from 15 cocoa agroforests. We further evaluated both the effects of landscape forest cover and local shading on five network indices and how functional traits of birds and seeds explain their importance to the network. In total, we obtained 467 events of potential plant-bird interactions, which revealed a modular pattern. We also observed that only canopy shading significantly affected network connectance, and seed diameter was a significant predictor in explaining tree species contribution in the network. Therefore, our findings show that cocoa agroforests with greater shading will have greater opportunities for interactions between frugivorous birds and plants. We also observed that plants with small seeds play a more relevant role in the co-occurrence interaction network. Based on findings, we emphasized that cocoa agroforests likely maintain certain mutualistic relationships to ensure ecosystem functionality and demonstrate that co-occurrence networks have great potential for future seed dispersal networks in agricultural ecosystems.

Smarter foragers do not forage smarter: a test of the diet hypothesis for brain expansion.

A leading hypothesis for the evolution of large brains in humans and other species is that a feedback loop exists whereby intelligent animals forage more efficiently, which results in increased energy intake that fuels the growth and maintenance of large brains. We test this hypothesis for the first time with high-resolution tracking data from four sympatric, frugivorous rainforest mammal species (42 individuals) and drone-based maps of their predominant feeding trees. We found no evidence that larger-brained primates had more efficient foraging paths than smaller brained procyonids. This refutes a key assumption of the fruit-diet hypothesis for brain evolution, suggesting that other factors such as temporal cognition, extractive foraging or sociality have been more important for brain evolution.

Habitat use of Amazonian birds varies by age and foraging guild along a disturbance gradient.

Patterns of habitat use directly influence a species' fitness, yet for many species an individual's age can influence patterns of habitat use. However, in tropical rainforests, which host the greatest terrestrial species diversity, little is known about how age classes of different species use different adjacent habitats of varying quality. We use long-term mist net data from the Amazon rainforest to assess patterns of habitat use among adult, adolescent (teenage) and young understory birds in forest fragments, primary and secondary forest at the Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project in Brazil. Insectivore adults were most common in primary forest, adolescents were equally likely in primary and secondary forest, and all ages were the least common in forest fragments. In contrast to insectivores, frugivores and omnivores showed no differences among all three habitat types. Our results illustrate potential ideal despotic distributions among breeding populations of some guilds of understory birds where adult insectivores may competitively exclude adolescent individuals from primary forest. Secondary forest recovery appears to hold promise as a breeding habitat for frugivore and omnivore species but only as a pre-breeding habitat for insectivores, but as the forest ages, the demographic structure of bird populations should match that of primary forest.

Loquat (Eriobotrya japonica) fruit consumption and preference by cloud forest birds: Implications for woody native species regeneration

Secondary forests from abandoned shade coffee plantations are commonly found close to Neotropical cities. These peri-urban forests provide important environmental services; however, their abandonment and proximity to the city can promote an increase of exotic species that could potentially change the structure and function of the system by creating novel ecosystems. The loquat (Eriobotrya japonica) is a tree native to Asia and is recognized as a potentially invasive species in the tropical montane cloud forest region of Central Veracruz, Mexico. We analyzed the consumption of and preference for loquat fruits in cloud forest frugivorous birds. In November 2020, we established six feeding stations with camera traps in a peri-urban cloud forest fragment in Xalapa, Mexico. To determine which bird species could consume and disperse E. japonica, fruits of this and another four native species (Psychotria nervosa, Hoffmannia excelsa, Picramnia antidesma, and Xylosma flexuosa) were exposed separately. After 444 camera-days, we recorded eight frugivorous bird species, seven of which consumed E. japonica fruits. Chlorospingus flavopectus was the only species to present a level of loquat fruit consumption greater than that expected by chance. We conducted experiments to assess whether the birds preferred to consume E. japonica fruits compared to those from three native species (Cestrum miradorense, P. nervosa, and X. flexuosa) that were offered simultaneously. All bird species exclusively consumed E. japonica fruits when contrasted against P. nervosa or X. flexuosa. The only native species fruits that were consumed were those of C. miradorense, although the birds also preferred to consume loquat fruits rather than this native species. The loquat therefore represents an important food resource and could act to influence the consumption and dispersal of native cloud forest plant species. The implications for cloud forest management are discussed.

Unique bird diversity in an Ethiopian church forest

AbstractToday, most of Ethiopia’s church forests are small forest patches surrounded by a degraded and anthropogenically modified landscape, mostly arable land. Nevertheless, these forest islands may still provide valuable habitats for typical forest species. It remains questionable whether these habitat remnants provide sufficient resources for forest species to successfully reproduce and persist in the long run. In this study, we assessed bird species based on point-counts in and around Tara Gedam Church Forest in northern Ethiopia. We observed birds in typical natural evergreen Afromontane forest (forest interior and forest edge) and in anthropogenic habitats, the semi-natural shrublands, agricultural land, and Eucalyptus tree plantations. We assigned ecological and behavioural characteristics to each of the bird species observed. Our results point to a specific bird community restricted to the forest interior and characterized by forest generalists and forest specialist birds. Along the forest edge, a mix of forest generalists and species of the open landscape can be found, creating mixed communities with high species overlap. The highest number of species was observed at the forest edge and in semi-natural shrubland, where both, open-land and forest species were found. On the other hand, the total number of species in the forest interior was comparatively low, with insectivorous and frugivorous typical forest species. Our results underline the fact that even small forest remnants are important for the conservation of forest species, which do not evade surrogate forest habitats.

Drivers of intraspecific variation in seed dispersal can differ across two species of fleshy‐fruited savanna plants

AbstractVarious factors may mediate the visitation of frugivores to fruiting plants, which can dictate the quantum of seeds removed (dispersed) away from the parent plant. Past studies have laid emphasis on species‐specific factors and environmental contexts that frugivores may use as cues to make foraging decisions and differentially visit various plant species. However, differences in plant traits (intrinsic factors) and local environmental contexts (extrinsic factors) can influence the diversity and abundance of frugivores that visit individual plants of the same species, resulting in intraspecific variation in seed dispersal. We observed individuals of two co‐fruiting plant species with morphologically similar fruits—Naringi crenulata and Ziziphus oenopolia—for 134 h and examined the influence of fruit crop size, plant height, and fruiting neighborhood on the diversity of visiting avian frugivores and quantum of fruit removal for individual plants. We found that despite their similarity in fruits and sharing of a similar set of frugivore species, the two plant species differed in how they attracted frugivores, with consequences for fruit removal rates. Fruit crop size was an important determinant of fruit removal for N. crenulata¸ while plant height led to greater visitation and fruit removal for Z. oenopolia. We discuss potential reasons for the difference in frugivore visitation and fruit removal for the two plant species. Our results support a growing body of evidence that intraspecific variation in seed dispersal is pervasive and highly context‐dependent, and describe frugivore interactions of two plant species from an understudied tropical savanna.

Can cyclone exposure explain behavioural and demographic variation among lemur species?

Madagascar has a harsh and stochastic climate because of regular natural disturbances. This history of regular cyclones has been hypothesised to have directed evolutionary changes to lemur behaviour and morphology that make them more resilient to sudden environmental change. These adaptations may include: small group sizes, high degrees of energy-conserving behaviours, generalist habitat use, small home ranges, small body size, and a limited number of frugivorous species. To date, however, no one has tested how variation in cyclone exposure across Madagascar is associated with variation in these resilience traits. In this study, we created a detailed cyclone impact map for Madagascar using Koppen-Geiger climate class, historical cyclone tracks, the Saffir Class of cyclone and hurricane intensity, and precipitation data. We also used existing literature to calculate a resilience score for 26 lemur species for which data existed on resilience traits. Our cyclone impact map was then overlaid on known geographic ranges of these species and compared to resilience score while controlling for phylogenetic non-independence and spatial autocorrelation. We found no association between cyclone impact in a lemur range and their resilience score. When assessing traits individually, however, we found that cyclone impact was positively associated with body size, suggesting that the more impacted a species is by cyclones the smaller they are. We also found cyclone impact to be negatively associated with frugivory, with species in higher impact zones eating more fruit. While unexpected, this could reflect an increased production in fruit in tree fall gaps following cyclones. While we did not find a pattern between cyclone impact and behavioural resilience in lemurs, we suggest a similar study at a global scale across all primates would allow for more taxonomic variation and reveal larger patterns key to understanding past and future vulnerability to natural disturbances in primates.

Seed‐dispersal mode and habitat connectivity underpin variation in carbon stocking between Brazilian biomes

Abstract In tropical forests, about 60%–80% of woody plant species depend on animal–plant interactions for dispersal. The dependence on animal species for dispersal makes this interaction very fragile in the face of anthropogenic changes in land use. Disrupting seed‐dispersal processes, principally zoochoric dispersal, could significantly alter the long‐term carbon storage potential of tropical forests. An important question is how landscape structure changes tree carbon stocks in different types of tropical vegetation and how variation is mediated by the dispersal mode of animal (zoochoric) or abiotic (non‐zoochoric) seeds. We focused on tree plots at 126 sites in Brazil spanning four types of forest and savanna vegetation, and calculated carbon stored in zoochoric, non‐zoochoric, and large frugivore‐dispersed species. Our results showed that carbon stocks in zoochoric species and non‐zoochoric species differ significantly among vegetation types, with rainforests having higher stocks in zoochoric species and deciduous seasonally dry tropical forests having higher values in non‐zoochoric species. A greater area of native vegetation promotes higher proportions of carbon stocks dispersed by large frugivore species, whereas a higher mean shape index reduces this proportion. Synthesis. This study highlights that seed‐dispersal type underpins the variation in carbon stocks between vegetation types and that the maintenance of habitat of large dispersers and connectivity are key for retaining carbon stocks in zoochoric species, particularly in rainforest and cerrado sensu stricto.

Structure and vulnerability of the ichthyochory network in wetland forests of Central Amazonia

AbstractThe interaction between fish and plants is vital for the dynamics of ecosystems since it influences plant distribution and regeneration patterns. In the floodable areas of the Amazon, these interactions are mainly structured by the flood pulse, which enables seed dispersal via water (hydrochory) and fish (ichthyochory), and which contributes to the formation of complex mutualistic networks. Our study evaluated the structure (modularity, nestedness, specialisation, and robustness) of the network of dispersal of seeds by frugivorous fish in a floodplain forest in Central Amazonia. We expect the binary network to have a nested pattern, while the weighted network is expected to have a non‐nested structure; that generalist frugivorous species should constitute the core of the network, while specialist frugivorous species will be peripheral; that the size of fish and seeds is related to specialisation, and that the robustness of the network weakens as generalist frugivorous fish are removed. We found 5012 intact seeds from 49 plant species in the digestive tracts of 11 species of frugivorous fish. A nested and modular pattern was found for the binary and weighted networks, albeit with a low degree of nestedness. Our network proved relatively robust when the frugivores were removed, whereby all the fish and plant species became peripheral. No relationship was found between the size of the fish and the seeds and the degree of specialisation. Considering the anthropogenic impacts that can cause modifications in seed dispersal networks, knowing the structure of mutualistic networks is fundamental in order to be able infer the vulnerability of the interactions as a result of changes in the ecosystem.

Animal‐mediated seed dispersal and the demo‐genetic configuration across plant colonization gradients

Abstract Ecologists have long recognized that seed dispersal mutualisms trigger natural regeneration and range expansion of animal‐dispersed trees. Yet we lack empirical studies addressing whether frugivore activity influences founder effects, which reduce genetic diversity at the colonization front of expanding populations. Here, we evaluate the contribution, from both demographic and genetic perspectives, of animal frugivores dispersing seeds across an expansion gradient. We used DNA barcoding for frugivores identification and highly polymorphic genetic markers (SSRs) for maternal analysis of juniper seeds to investigate how (1) stand maturity, (2) microhabitat types and (3) foraging patterns shape the distribution of the maternal progenies along this gradient. We expect both reduced seed rain density and low numbers of source trees contributing to the seed rain at the colonization front, with limited availability of local fruiting trees. We also anticipated that large‐sized frugivore species would promote maternally rich seed rain due to their ability to mix seed progenies during digestive processing and move further distances across the landscape. Contrary to our expectations, we found that all identified frugivores produced dense and genetically diverse seed rains across the expansion gradient, even at the colonization front, characterized by scarce fruiting trees. Synthesis: Our findings shed light on the fundamental and applied implications of plant–frugivore interactions in shaping highly diverse second‐growth forests. These results emphasize the necessity of preserving plant–animal mutualistic interactions to ensure the persistence and expansion of natural tree populations, particularly in formerly fragmented landscapes

Olfactory receptors in Bactrocera species for sustainable fruit fly management: A review and future perspectives

AbstractMolecular studies on odorant receptors (ORs), odorant‐binding proteins (OBPs) and the functioning of the receptor and pheromone signal transduction in fruit fly Bactrocera species have expanded exponentially during the past few decades. OBPs contribute to the sensing of the olfactory system (OS) via the transduction of odorants through the sensillum lymph. However, ORs, a family of G‐protein‐coupled receptors in Bactrocera and various other species, exhibit heightened responsiveness to multiple chemical odours such as hormones, sensory stimuli and neurotransmitters. The apparent mechanism involves a combinatorial code encompassing both peripheral and antennal lobe processing, facilitating the reception of sexual pheromones and environmental cues. The OS is specifically designed to recognize and process information from volatile chemical signals, and these chemical signals play an important function in various flies. Insects rely on these chemicals to navigate and comprehend their surroundings. A mature insect OS is composed of two pairs of sensillae‐covered palps, antennae and two primary pairs of olfactory appendages on the anterior head. It has been shown that chemosensory gene families contribute in odour perception. These include various neuroreceptor families, such as OBPs, chemosensory proteins and sensory neuron membrane proteins. Additionally, there are three divergent chemoreceptors, namely ORs, ionotropic receptors and gustatory receptors. Methods based on systematic biology, molecular biology and bioinformatics tools have rapidly emerged to investigate the insect communication systems and provide new insights for the management of many agricultural pest. Several aromatic compounds, including semiochemicals and pheromones, have been employed to defend crops and animals from destructive fruit flies and other invasive and frugivorous species. To promote the expansion of the cropping system, the utilization of phytochemical lures can be convenient for sustainable agriculture production and enhance food security. Hence, this review examined the state of the art in chemical communication of insects with a focus on fruit fly pest species to identify OS and their semiochemical receptors, protein receptors and chemosensory receptors (CSRs), as well as their practical applications for biological control and integrated pest management are highlighted.

Food preferences and nutrient composition in captive Southern brown howler monkeys, Alouatta guariba clamitans.

Studies of food preferences in captive primates have so far mainly been restricted to frugivorous species. It was therefore the aim of the present study to assess the occurrence of spontaneous food preferences in a mainly folivorous primate, the captive Southern brown howler monkey, and to analyze whether these preferences correlate with nutrient composition. Using a two-alternative choice test, we presented ten male and five female adult Alouatta guariba clamitans with all possible binary combinations of ten types of food that are part of their diet in captivity and recorded their choice behavior. We found the howler monkeys to display the following rank order of preference: banana > mango > watermelon > papaya > beetroot > apple > pear > orange > cucumber > tomato. This preference ranking significantly and positively correlated with the total carbohydrate content and with the sucrose content of the food items. We also found significant positive correlations between the food preference ranking and the content of the minerals copper and magnesium. Male and female howler monkeys did not differ significantly in their food preference rankings. These results suggest this howler monkeys under human care are not opportunistic, but selective feeders with regard to maximizing their net gain of energy as only the content of carbohydrates, but not the contents of total energy, proteins, or lipids significantly correlated with the displayed food preferences. Thus, the food preferences of this primate are similar to those reported in several species of frugivorous primates tested with cultivated fruits and vegetables.

Assessment of Avian Diversity and Water Parameters of Narsinh Mehta Lake, Junagadh City, Gujarat, India: A Case Study of Revamping Habitat

Landscape changes due to habitat alteration and fragmentation can result in complex changes in biodiversity. In the present study, Narsinh Mehta Lake located on the center of Junagadh city was studied for avian diversity during March 2021 to December 2022. The lake, a vital ecosystem within an urban setting, presents a unique opportunity to investigate how avian species composition and abundance are influenced by various water quality parameters. A total of 85 avian species belongs to 14 orders and 36 families and 69 genera are recorded including 5 near threatened and 3 vulnerable species. Amongst the recorded species, 22 were migratory and 63 resident birds. The carnivorous feeding habit was shown by the maximum number of species while nectarivores and frugivorous bird species were in the least numbers. The rich avifaunal diversity of Narsinh Mehta Lake confirms it as a suitable habitat for both migrant and resident bird species. Furthermore, variations in water parameters appear to influence the distribution and behavior of avian species, highlighting the importance of maintaining suitable water conditions for avian populations. Such insights are critical for effective conservation and management strategies aimed at preserving both avian diversity and the integrity of Narsinh Mehta Lake ecosystem. It is worth to mention that the lake is selected for beautification to attract tourists which may affect the biodiversity of the lake.