From Formalin-fixed Paraffin-embedded DNA Research Articles

Abstract 5049: Detecting chromosomal copy number variations and point mutations in Glioma using a single assay; sparing tissue while significantly reducing testing time and cost

Abstract We aimed to develop a single streamlined assay to detect all Glioma biomarkers. The current diagnosis of Gliomas incorporates molecular biomarkers that include whole chromosomal copy number variations (CNVs) and single nucleotide variations (SNVs). Testing CNVs and SNVs are traditionally done using different large platforms and are performed in large genomic facilities that have the suitable infrastructure. This creates delays in testing, where samples undergo lengthy referrals and the tissue is often split between institutions, which also adds substantially to the costs. We have previously used Nanopore sequencing to develop an assay to detect IDH SNVs from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue. Nanopore sequencing platform uses small inexpensive tools and can test for both CNVs and SNVs. However, combining both targets efficiently in FFPE tissue remains a challenge. While nanopore whole genome sequencing can detect CNVs, it does not allow for enough coverage to accurately detect small SNVs. Also, raw FFPE DNA is not compatible with the nanopore technology. To fix both challenges we used a PCR based approach that allows enrichment of the SNV targets, as well as creates new nanopore compatible DNA copies. To counteract the bias that PCR creates with uneven amplification, we used a SNP based method to call chromosomal gains and losses. Statistical analysis of probability showed that targeting 15 heterozygous SNPs per chr arm is sufficient for accurate CNV detection (error rate <0.1%). A total of 57 amplicons targeting CNVs on Chr 1,7, 10, 19, and EGFR gene; and IDH1 and IDH2 SNVs were pooled together in one assay and tested on 4 Glioma samples. Variant calling was performed with a custom Python script. All CNV targets were accurately detected on all samples. Losses in chr 1p, 19q and chr 10 were evident with a loss of heterozygosity (LOH) pattern on the SNP analysis. The gain in chromosome 7 was also observed as an allele gain 2:1 SNP pattern on the corresponding samples. The SNV statuses of these samples were also accurately detected when compared to reference results. Finally, the SNV and CNV calling analysis were streamlined using custom shell script, further reducing total turnaround time (including sequencing and data analysis) to less than a day for the entire batch of samples. Initial cost analysis shows <50% of the traditional testing costs for the assay. This work is the first to develop a streamlined single test to detect CNVs and SNVs in Gliomas using FFPE DNA on the nanopore sequencing platform. The shorter testing time, streamlined workflow, and low assay/capital cost could positively influence the care of brain cancer patients. Notably, nanopore-based sequencing tools can also be implemented in other types of tumor diagnosis, especially by smaller labs, helping to overcome many of the existing diagnostic challenges. Citation Format: Mashiat L. Mimosa, Jared T. Simpson, Karel Boissinot, Mora Tiab, Ramzi Fattouh, Rola M. Saleeb. Detecting chromosomal copy number variations and point mutations in Glioma using a single assay; sparing tissue while significantly reducing testing time and cost [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2024; Part 1 (Regular Abstracts); 2024 Apr 5-10; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2024;84(6_Suppl):Abstract nr 5049.

P53 loss of heterozygosity (LOH) in formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded leiomyosarcoma (LMS): a novel report.

The occurrence of p53 loss of heterozygosity (LOH) is a common genetic event in malignancy. LOH occurs when a heterozygous locus loses one of its two parental alleles, becoming homozygous at that locus, by either copy number loss (CNL-LOH) or by becoming copy number neutral (CNN-LOH). A role for CNL-LOH (cnLOH) has been postulated in cancer aetiology. Loss of heterozygosity (LOH) results in irreversible genetic loss. LOH was determined in DNA extracted from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) leiomyosarcoma (LMS) specimens in a retrospective study from 30 patients, to assess the prognostic significance of LOH. The findings were analysed and their validity assessed. LOH was an adverse prognostic factor in LMS. Prospective uniform standardisation of formalin-fixation techniques is required. DNA was extracted from 169 formalin-fixed paraffin blocks of 30 patients with LMS, following extensive tissue microdissection. Genomic DNA was amplified using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique. Fluorescence-based microsatellite PCR was used to detect and quantitate heterozygosity loss. LOH was detected at gene locus 17p13 in 16 LMS (Four grade 2 and 12 grade 3 LMS). LOH was not detected in 14 LMS cases (one grade 1, five grade 2 and eight grade 3 LMS). LOH was associated with shorter patient survival. The results reported herein endorse the value of utilizing FFPE DNA in identifying LOH as a prognostic factor in LMS. The results have implications for tumour biobanking and precision medicine in patients with sarcomas.

Comparative Assessment of DNA Extraction Techniques From Formalin-Fixed, Paraffin-Embedded Tumor Specimens and Their Impact on Downstream Analysis.

Good-quality nucleic acid extraction from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) specimens remains a challenge in molecular-oncopathology practice. This study evaluates the efficacy of an in-house developed FFPE extraction buffer compared with other commercially available kits. Eighty FFPE specimens processed in different surgical pathology laboratories formed the study sample. DNA extraction was performed using three commercial kits and the in-house developed FFPE extraction buffer. DNA yield was quantified by a NanoDrop spectrophotometer and Qubit Fluorometer, and its purity was measured by the 260/280-nm ratio. A fragment analyzer system was used for accurate sizing of DNA fragments of FFPE DNA. The downstream effects of all extraction methods were evaluated by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and Sanger sequencing. In comparison with the commercial kits, the in-house buffer yielded higher DNA quantity and quality number (P < .0001). In addition, DNA integrity and fragment size were preserved in a significantly greater number of samples isolated with the in-house buffer (P < .05). The target PCR amplification rate with the in-house buffer extracted samples was also significantly higher, with 98% of the samples showing interpretable sequencing results. The in-house developed FFPE extraction buffer performed superior to other methods in terms of suitability for downstream applications, time, cost-efficiency, and ease of performance.

Abstract 3739: EM-seq permits accurate and precise methylome analysis of cfDNA and FFPE DNA

Abstract The study of DNA methylation from cell-free DNA (cfDNA) and DNA extracted from formalin fixed paraffin embedded (FFPE) tissues are notoriously difficult. The use of these DNA inputs is becoming increasingly important in the field of cancer diagnostics. The cytosine modifications, 5-methylcytosines (5mC) and 5-hydroxymethylcytosines (5hmC), are key epigenetic factors that play an important role in cellular processes and their mis-regulation results in diseased states like cancer. Advances in the study of these epigenetic factors in combination with improvements in sample preparation have enabled cancer biomarker identification based on methylation profiling. The historical gold standard for detecting cytosine methylation has been bisulfite sequencing. This method uses chemical conversion of cytosines into uracils and has been used for both targeted and whole genome methylation analysis. However, bisulfite conversion leads to DNA damage which results in shorter DNA insert sizes as well as biases in the data. It is challenging to make bisulfite libraries from cfDNA and FFPE DNA as typically the DNA is of low quantity and quality. We developed an enzyme-based methylation detection technology (EM-seq) to address the flaws inherent to bisulfite sequencing. This method, primarily due to the intact nature of DNA after conversion, results in better quality libraries with longer insert sizes, lower duplication rates and minimal GC bias. EM-seq libraries prepared from cfDNA and lung FFPE DNA had longer inserts, lower duplication rates, higher percentages of mapped reads and less GC bias compared to bisulfite libraries. EM-seq libraries also identified a higher number of CpGs with even coverage facilitating accurate methylation calling. EM-seq’s superior sequencing metrics establish it as a standard method for robust methylation profiling, particularly for these types of challenging DNA samples. Citation Format: Louise Williams. EM-seq permits accurate and precise methylome analysis of cfDNA and FFPE DNA [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2022; 2022 Apr 8-13. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2022;82(12_Suppl):Abstract nr 3739.

Preparation of Duplex Sequencing Libraries for Archival Paraffin-Embedded Tissue Samples Using Single-Strand-Specific Nuclease P1.

DNA from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues, which are frequently utilized in cancer research, is significantly affected by chemical degradation. It was suggested that approaches that are based on duplex sequencing can significantly improve the accuracy of mutation detection in FFPE-derived DNA. However, the original duplex sequencing method cannot be utilized for the analysis of formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues, as FFPE DNA contains an excessive number of damaged bases, and these lesions are converted to false double-strand nucleotide substitutions during polymerase-driven DNA end repair process. To resolve this drawback, we replaced DNA polymerase by a single strand-specific nuclease P1. Nuclease P1 was shown to efficiently remove RNA from DNA preparations, to fragment the FFPE-derived DNA and to remove 5′/3′-overhangs. To assess the performance of duplex sequencing-based methods in FFPE-derived DNA, we constructed the Bottleneck Sequencing System (BotSeqS) libraries from five colorectal carcinomas (CRCs) using either DNA polymerase or nuclease P1. As expected, the number of identified mutations was approximately an order of magnitude higher in libraries prepared with DNA polymerase vs. nuclease P1 (626 ± 167/Mb vs. 75 ± 37/Mb, paired t-test p-value 0.003). Furthermore, the use of nuclease P1 but not polymerase-driven DNA end repair allowed a reliable discrimination between CRC tumors with and without hypermutator phenotypes. The utility of newly developed modification was validated in the collection of 17 CRCs and 5 adjacent normal tissues. Nuclease P1 can be recommended for the use in duplex sequencing library preparation from FFPE-derived DNA.

Organocatalyst treatment improves variant calling and mutant detection in archival clinical samples

Formalin fixation of biological specimens damages nucleic acids and limits their use in genomic analyses. Previously, we showed that RNA isolation with an organocatalyst (2-amino-5-methylphenyl phosphonic acid, used to speed up reversal of formalin-induced adducts) and extended heated incubation (ORGΔ) improved RNA-sequencing data from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue samples. The primary goal of this study was to evaluate whether ORGΔ treatment improves DNA-sequencing data from clinical FFPE samples. We isolated RNA and DNA ± ORGΔ from paired FFPE and frozen human renal and ovarian carcinoma specimens collected as part of the National Cancer Institute Biospecimen Pre-analytical Variables program. Tumor types were microscopically confirmed from adjacent tissue sections. Following extraction, DNA was fragmented and sequenced and differences were compared between frozen and FFPE sample pairs. Treatment with ORGΔ improved concurrent SNP calls in FFPE DNA compared to non-ORGΔ FFPE samples and enhanced confidence in SNP calls for all FFPE DNA samples, beyond that of matched frozen samples. In general, the concordant SNPs identified in paired frozen and FFPE DNA samples agreed for both genotype and homozygosity vs. heterozygosity of calls regardless of ORGΔ treatment. The increased confidence in ORGΔ FFPE DNA variant calls relative to the matched frozen DNA suggests a novel application of this method. With further optimization, this method may improve quality of DNA-sequencing data in FFPE as well as frozen tissue samples.

Abstract 4145: Performance of IntelliPlexTM companion diagnostics application in cancer management

Abstract Background: Cancer is a group of various diseases with diverse causes which lead to the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells. Understanding the genetic alteration in genes associated with cancer optimizes therapy outcomes by tailoring treatment based on each patient genetic basis. Molecular profiling is therefore a crucial tool for precision medicine to improve cancer management. Method: The IntelliPlexTM system, based on πCodeTM technology, provides a multiplexing solution for molecular profiling in just one reaction. PlexBio developed several single target gene assays utilizing DNA samples derived from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tumor tissues. The IntelliPlex EGFR Mutation kit is intended for detection of 40 mutations in the EGFR gene. The IntelliPlex BRAF V600 Mutation Kit is designed for identification of 7 nucleotide changes. The IntelliPlex KRAS Mutation Plus kit targets 25 single nucleotide changes in the KRAS gene and the IntelliPlex NRAS Mutation qualitative detects 33 single nucleotide changes in the NRAS gene. All IntelliPlex assays analyze the mutational status of each target in less than 5 hours (nucleic acid extraction not included) and allow high-throughput screening of up to 94 samples in parallel with minimal hands-on time. The performance of IntelliPlex system was evaluated on archived FFPE DNA specimens by comparing the results of the respective IntelliPlex assay with results previously obtained using the indicated commercially available molecular assays. All tests were conducted in a hospital lab located in Italy. Results: Among 76 FFPE DNA specimens tested, the overall agreement between IntelliPlex system and the comparison method was found to be 93.4%. The individual concordance for each assay kit is 90.0%, 95.8%, 93.8%, and 93.8% for EGFR, KRAS Plus, NRAS and BRAF, respectively. Conclusion: PlexBio's IntelliPlexTM system, a multiplex detection platform, is suitable to support precision medicine in cancer management. The system offers a rapid and cost-effective way to analyze patient specimens with high sensitivity and specificity in a clinical environment. Citation Format: Lara Felicioni, Fiamma Buttitta, Antonio Marchetti, ShianPin Hu, ChenHung Chao, WenKai Liang, JuiYu Hu, Stuart Palmer, ChinShiou Huang. Performance of IntelliPlexTM companion diagnostics application in cancer management [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research 2020; 2020 Apr 27-28 and Jun 22-24. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2020;80(16 Suppl):Abstract nr 4145.

DNA purification increases PCR-amplifiable DNA extracted from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded canine mast cell tumors for routine KIT mutation detection

DNA amplification by PCR detects KIT exon 11 internal tandem duplications in canine mast cell tumors (MCTs). Tissue-specific inhibitors often contaminate DNA extracted from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) canine MCTs, blocking PCR amplification and, consequently, preventing mutation detection. We used a commercial kit to extract DNA from FFPE canine MCTs. Two independent PCR assays, each with one primer set, were used to amplify target genes (HPRT and KIT) directly after FFPE DNA extraction. PCR amplification failed with at least one primer set in 153 of 280 samples (54.6%, 95% CI: 48.8-60.5%). One or 2 DNA washing steps were required to remove PCR inhibitors in 130 of 280 (46.4%) and 23 of 280 (8.2%) of these cases, respectively. DNA concentration and quality (A260/A280 and A260/A230) either pre- or post-washing were not associated with ability of the samples to be amplified by PCR using both HPRT and KIT primer sets. Low-grade and subcutaneous MCTs were less likely to amplify directly after DNA extraction and without any washing steps compared to high-grade MCTs using KIT gene primers.

Comparison of Five Commercial Nucleic Acid Extraction Kits for the PCR-based Detection of Burkholderia Pseudomallei DNA in Formalin-Fixed, Paraffin-Embedded Tissues.

The extraction and further processing of nucleic acids (NA) from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues for microbiological diagnostic polymerase chain reaction (PCR) approaches is challenging. Here, we assessed the effects of five different commercially available nucleic acid extraction kits on the results of real-time PCR.FFPE samples from organs of Burkholderia pseudomallei-infected Swiss mice were subjected to processing with five different extraction kits from QIAGEN (FFPE DNA Tissue Kit, EZ1 DNA Tissue Kit, DNA Mini Kit, DNA Blood Mini Kit, and FlexiGene DNA Kit) in combination with three different real-time PCRs targeting B. pseudomallei-specific sequences of varying length after 16 years of storage.The EZ1 DNA Tissue Kit and the DNA Mini Kit scored best regarding the numbers of successful PCR reactions. In case of positive PCR, differences regarding the cycle-threshold (Ct) values were marginal.The impact of the applied extraction kits on the reliability of PCR from FFPE material seems to be low. Interfering factors like the quality of the dewaxing procedure or the sample age appear more important than the selection of specialized FFPE kits.

Abstract 3638: A rapid, multiplexed, and highly accurate next-generation sequencing RAS Panel for FFPE colorectal samples reporting on the absence or presence of low frequency somatic variants

Abstract Introduction: Next generation sequencing (NGS) is a highly sensitive method for detecting somatic mutations. Mutations in NRAS and KRAS may affect up to 50% of patients with colorectal cancer (CRC). Recent data suggest the clinical benefit of panitumumab is restricted to patients who have no tumor mutations in RAS, defined as codons 12, 13, 59, 61, 117 and 146 of KRAS and NRAS genes. An Extended RAS panel* targets these codons as a single multiplex assay. A dual strand approach distinguishes true mutations from artifacts commonly found in DNA from Formalin Fixed Paraffin Embedded (FFPE) tissue. Analytical performance of this panel was characterized. Methods: FFPE tissue was examined for tumor content and area. DNA was extracted from FFPE tissue, cell lines and plasmids. The DNA quality and quantity were simultaneously determined through a quantitative PCR measurement of amplifiability. TruSeq Custom Amplicon technology targeting each strand of DNA was used to construct NGS libraries. Sequencing was performed on the MiSeqDx, and the Illumina Somatic Variant Caller was used to call somatic variants. Results: The dual-strand amplicon approach results in high accuracy by eliminating false positives observed on one strand of DNA typical of an FFPE artifact, by requiring every variant to be detected on both strands. We evaluated performance on 500 FFPE CRC samples processed with the Extended RAS panel. Concordance against Qiagen TheraScreen and Sanger Sequencing results was evaluated. The somatic variant caller yields a specificity of 0.98 and sensitivity of 0.72 for variants in the 5%-10% range, and a specificity of 0.96 and sensitivity of 0.98, overall, where we take the alternate methods as truth. Cumulative FFPE tissue area influences performance of the RAS panel. FFPE of a range of tissue area were tested using 1, 3, 5, and 8 sections per sample. 80mm2 minimum (240mm2 recommended) cumulative tissue area using 5uM slices was optimal for performance and accuracy. DNA quantity and quality also influence test accuracy and sensitivity. A study with 40 FFPE specimens assayed over multiple operators and sequencers produced average coverage of 32,000 reads per target per sample, and over 93% alignable reads per sample. Reproducibility of mutations detected over multiple operators and instruments was 100%. The Extended RAS Panel demonstrates robust performance across many sources of variation, including FFPE DNA extraction method, DNA storage time, recommended DNA input range, qPCR/PCR thermocyclers with little to no impact on sample pass rate and agreement with Sanger sequencing. We also demonstrate detection of 56 distinct mutations in a single run. Conclusion: This multiplex assay achieves high accuracy for detection of somatic mutations from DNA extracted from FFPE colorectal tissue samples. *In development For Research Use Only. Not for use in diagnostic procedures. Citation Format: Tamsen Dunn, Anita Iyer, Margaret Porter, Robert Haigis, Shannon Smith, Desiree Lee, Nitin Udar. A rapid, multiplexed, and highly accurate next-generation sequencing RAS Panel for FFPE colorectal samples reporting on the absence or presence of low frequency somatic variants. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 107th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2016 Apr 16-20; New Orleans, LA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2016;76(14 Suppl):Abstract nr 3638.

Single-Tubed Wild-Type Blocking Quantitative PCR Detection Assay for the Sensitive Detection of Codon 12 and 13 KRAS Mutations.

The high degree of intra-tumor heterogeneity has meant that it is important to develop sensitive and selective assays to detect low-abundance KRAS mutations in metastatic colorectal carcinoma (mCRC) patients. As a major potential source of tumor DNA in the aforementioned genotyping assays, it was necessary to conduct an analysis on both the quality and quantity of DNA extracted from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE). Therefore, four commercial FFPE DNA extraction kits were initially compared with respect to their ability to facilitate extraction of amplifiable DNA. The results showed that TrimGen kits showed the greatest performance in relation to the quality and quantity of extracted FFPE DNA solutions. Using DNA extracted by TrimGen kits as a template for tumor genotyping, a real-time wild-type blocking PCR (WTB-PCR) assay was subsequently developed to detect the aforementioned KRAS mutations in mCRC patients. The results showed that WTB-PCR facilitated the detection of mutated alleles at a ratio of 1:10,000 (i.e. 0.01%) wild-type alleles. When the assay was subsequently used to test 49 mCRC patients, the results showed that the mutation detection levels of the WTB-PCR assay (61.8%; 30/49) were significantly higher than that of traditional PCR (38.8%; 19/49). Following the use of the real-time WTB-PCR assay, the ΔC q method was used to quantitatively analyze the mutation levels associated with KRAS in each FFPE sample. The results showed that the mutant levels ranged from 53.74 to 0.12% in the patients analyzed. In conclusion, the current real-time WTB-PCR is a rapid, simple, and low-cost method that permits the detection of trace amounts of the mutated KRAS gene.

Multiplex bisulfite PCR resequencing of clinical FFPE DNA.

BackgroundThe clinical utility of DNA methylation as a predictive or prognostic biomarker requires scalable resequencing protocols for bisulfite-converted DNA. Key features of any validation method should be adaptability for low- or high-throughput needs and high reproducibility, and should only require minimal amounts of precious clinical sample as input material. Critically, this method should also deliver robust results when working with bisulfite-converted DNA extracted from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) blocks.ResultsWe report here for the first time on comparison studies between the Fluidigm Access Array system and multiplex assays for multiplex bisulfite PCR resequencing. The requirement of the Fluidigm Access Array system for high template amounts and its sensitivity to variations in template quality rendered it unsuitable for bisulfite PCR applications utilizing FFPE DNA. In response to this limitation, we established a multiplex bisulfite PCR assay capable of delivering robust methylation data using minimal amounts of FFPE clinical DNA. To evaluate the parameters and reproducibility of this assay, 57 amplicons were used to prepare sequencing libraries in triplicate for 13 FFPE tumour samples, as well as a series of 5 methylated controls (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%). Analysis of this data demonstrated that this multiplex assay had high reproducibility (mean standard deviation of 1.4% for methylation values), was low cost, required low sample input (50 ng of DNA or less), and could be scaled for both low- and high-throughput needs. Notably, ExoSAP-IT (exonuclease I) treatment to remove residual primers in bisulfite resequencing libraries appeared to degrade the library and generate a high-molecular weight smear which may impact on the degree of methylation assessed.ConclusionsMultiplex bisulfite PCR assays represent a convenient and scalable method for validation and screening of methylated DNA regions from archival FFPE DNA. Moreover, the library construction process detailed here can be rapidly optimized and implemented with a minimal amount of work, can be performed using the standard equipment found in any molecular biology laboratory, and can be easily adapted for use on both genomic DNA and bisulfite DNA applications. However, in preparing bisulfite libraries for sequencing, the use of ExoSAP-IT is not recommended due to potential off-target nuclease effects which may impact downstream methylation analysis.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13148-015-0067-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Technical Reproducibility of Single-Nucleotide and Size-Based DNA Biomarker Assessment Using DNA Extracted from Formalin-Fixed, Paraffin-Embedded Tissues

DNA extracted from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues has been used in the past to analyze genetic polymorphisms. We evaluated the technical reproducibility of different types of assays for gene polymorphisms using DNA extracted from FFPE material. By using the MassARRAY iPLEX system, we investigated polymorphisms in DPYD (rs1801159 and rs3918290), UMPS (rs1801019), ERCC1 (rs11615), ERCC1 (rs3212986), and ERCC2 (rs13181) in 56 FFPE DNA samples. By using PCR, followed by size-based gel electrophoresis, we also examined TYMS 5' untranslated region 2R/3R repeats and GSTT1 deletions in 50 FFPE DNA samples and 34 DNAs extracted from fresh-frozen tissues and cell lines. Each polymorphism was analyzed by two independent runs. We found that iPLEX biomarker assays measuring single-nucleotide polymorphisms provided consistent concordant results. However, by using FFPE DNA, size-based PCR biomarkers (GSTT1 and TYMS 5' untranslated region) were discrepant in 32.7% (16/49, with exact 95% CI, 19.9%-47.5%; exact binomial confidence limit test) and 4.2% (2/48, with exact 95% CI, 0.5%-14.3%) of cases, respectively, whereas no discrepancies were observed using intact genomic DNA. Our findings suggest that DNA from FFPE material can be used to reliably test single-nucleotide polymorphisms. However, results based on size-based PCR biomarkers, and particularly GSTT1 deletions, using FFPE DNA need to be interpreted with caution. Independent repeated assays should be performed on all cases to assess potential discrepancies.

Towards a Next-Generation Sequencing Diagnostic Service for Tumour Genotyping: A Comparison of Panels and Platforms.

Detection of clinically actionable mutations in diagnostic tumour specimens aids in the selection of targeted therapeutics. With an ever increasing number of clinically significant mutations identified, tumour genetic diagnostics is moving from single to multigene analysis. As it is still not feasible for routine diagnostic laboratories to perform sequencing of the entire cancer genome, our approach was to undertake targeted mutation detection. To optimise our diagnostic workflow, we evaluated three target enrichment strategies using two next-generation sequencing (NGS) platforms (Illumina MiSeq and Ion PGM). The target enrichment strategies were Fluidigm Access Array custom amplicon panel including 13 genes (MiSeq sequencing), the Oxford Gene Technologies (OGT) SureSeq Solid Tumour hybridisation panel including 60 genes (MiSeq sequencing), and an Ion AmpliSeq Cancer Hotspot Panel including 50 genes (Ion PGM sequencing). DNA extracted from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) blocks of eight previously characterised cancer cell lines was tested using the three panels. Matching genomic DNA from fresh cultures of these cell lines was also tested using the custom Fluidigm panel and the OGT SureSeq Solid Tumour panel. Each panel allowed mutation detection of core cancer genes including KRAS, BRAF, and EGFR. Our results indicate that the panels enable accurate variant detection despite sequencing from FFPE DNA.

Expanding epigenomics to archived FFPE tissues: an evaluation of DNA repair methodologies.

Epigenome-wide association studies are emerging in the field of cancer epidemiology with the rapid development of large-scale methylation array platforms. Until recently, these methods were only valid for DNA from flash frozen (FF) tissues. Novel techniques for repairing DNA from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues have emerged; however, a direct comparison of FFPE DNA repair methods before analysis on genome-wide methylation array to matched FF tissues has not been conducted. We conducted a systematic performance comparison of two DNA repair methods (REPLI-g Ligase vs. Infinium HD Restore Kit) on FFPE-DNA compared with matched FF tissues on the Infinium 450K array. A threshold of discordant methylation between FF-FFPE pairs was set at Δβ > 0.3. The correlations of β-values from FF-FFPE pairs were compared across methods and experimental conditions. The Illumina Restore kit outperformed the REPLI-g ligation method with respect to reproducibility of replicates (R(2) > 0.970), highly correlated β-values between FF-FFPE (R(2) > 0.888), and fewest discordant loci between FF-FFPE (≤0.61%). The performance of the Restore kit was validated in an independent set of 121 FFPE tissues. The Restore kit outperformed RELPI-g ligation in restoring FFPE-derived DNA before analysis on the Infinium 450K methylation array. Our findings provide critical guidance that may significantly enhance the breadth of diseases that can be studied by methylomic profiling. Epigenomic studies using FFPE tissues should now be considered among cancers that have not been fully characterized from an epigenomic standpoint. These findings promote novel epigenome-wide studies focused on cancer etiology, identification of novel biomarkers, and developing targeted therapies. See all the articles in this CEBP Focus section, "Biomarkers, Biospecimens, and New Technologies in Molecular Epidemiology."

Clinical massively parallel next-generation sequencing analysis of 409 cancer-related genes for mutations and copy number variations in solid tumours.

Background:In a clinical diagnostic laboratory, we evaluated the applicability of the Ion Proton sequencer for screening 409 cancer-related genes in solid tumours.Methods:DNA was extracted from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue biopsy specimens of 55 solid tumours (20 with matched normal tissue) and four cell lines and screened for mutations in 409 genes using the Ion Proton system. The mutation profiles of these samples were known based on prior testing using the Ion Torrent Personal Genome Machine (46-gene hotspot panel), Sanger sequencing, or fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH). Concordance with retrospective findings and additional mutations were evaluated. Assay sensitivity and reproducibility were established. Gene copy number variations (CNVs) detected were confirmed by molecular inversion probe (MIP) array.Results:The average Ion Proton (409-gene panel) sequencing output per run was 8 gigabases with 128 million sequencing reads. Of the 15,992 amplicons in the 409-gene panel, 90% achieved a minimum average sequencing depth of 100X. In 59 samples, the Ion Proton detected 100 of 105 expected single-nucleotide variants (SNVs) and all expected deletions (n=8), insertions (n=5), and CNVs (n=7). Five SNVs were not detected due to failed amplification of targeted regions. In 20 tumours with paired normal tissue, Ion Proton detected 37 additional somatic mutations, several in genes of high prognostic or therapeutic significance, such as MET, ALK, TP53, APC, and PTEN. MIP array analysis confirmed all CNVs detected by Ion Proton.Conclusions:The Ion Proton (409-gene panel) system was found to be well suited for use in a clinical molecular diagnostic laboratory. It can simultaneously screen 409 genes for a variety of sequence variants in multiple samples using a low input of FFPE DNA with high reproducibility and sensitivity.

Genome‐wide DNA methylation analysis of formalin‐fixed paraffin embedded colorectal cancer tissue

Formalin fixation and embedding of clinical tissue samples in paraffin is a common method for archiving biological material. These samples are often well annotated and provide an invaluable resource for research. However, this process of fixation and storage of tissue leads to DNA damage and fragmentation. The use of DNA from formalin fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue to interrogate methylation levels on a genome-wide scale can pose challenges. We compared fresh and matched FFPE tissue DNA samples using the Illumina Infinium HD Human Methylation 450K BeadChip platform with a companion application for repair and "restoration" of DNA from FFPE tissue. Our results showed good correlation between fresh and FFPE sample data. FFPE DNA captured 99% of the CpG sites on the array on average. Significant cancer subgroups based on the CpG island methylator phenotype (CIMP) were clearly distinguished for both fresh and FFPE sample sets with cluster and scaling analysis. The DNA methylation status for the five standard CIMP panel genes which was evaluated for all samples by the MethyLight assay was correctly assigned in both fresh and FFPE samples by the array data. We conclude that the "restoration" method followed by assay on the Infinium HD Human Methylation 450K microarray can produce good quality data for DNA from FFPE samples.

Detection of BRAF V600 Mutations in Metastatic Melanoma: Comparison of the Cobas 4800 and Sanger Sequencing Assays

Detection of BRAF V600 Mutations in Metastatic Melanoma: Comparison of the Cobas 4800 and Sanger Sequencing Assays

Abstract 4154: Rapid, highly multiplexed somatic mutation analysis of FFPE tissues by deep amplicon sequencing on MiSeq®.

Abstract DNA extraction from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tumor tissues typically results in low quantities of poor-quality, damaged DNA, which present challenges for sequencing. Here we present a fast, streamlined sample-to-answer workflow using probe design software and sample preparation methods optimized to overcome these challenges. DesignStudio® allows for the targeting of up to 1,536 user-defined genomic regions and supports amplicon sizes (150- and 175-bp) ideal for characterizing genomic hot-spot regions or sequencing of whole exons with FFPE DNA. The TruSeq® Custom Amplicon (TSCA) workflow delivers high target enrichment specificity (&amp;gt;80% of reads on target), robust target multiplexing (up to 1,536 amplicons per reaction), and scalable sample indexing (up to 96 libraries) that supports simultaneous sequencing using the MiSeq. We have optimized the DNA extraction and hybridization processes to achieve higher DNA yields and more uniform target representation, respectively. In addition, the improved TSCA assay and software analysis tools significantly reduce false-positive variant calls. In conclusion, we have developed an integrated solution for highly accurate and reproducible detection of somatic variants implicated in cancer biology. Citation Format: Elizabeth Upsall, Katherine Chang, Ian Lewis, April Tian, Anita Iyer, Richard Shen, Charles Lin. Rapid, highly multiplexed somatic mutation analysis of FFPE tissues by deep amplicon sequencing on MiSeq®. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 104th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2013 Apr 6-10; Washington, DC. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2013;73(8 Suppl):Abstract nr 4154. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2013-4154

Abstract 1211: High throughput somatic mutation profiling in non-small cell lung adenocarcinoma using MALDI-TOF Mass spectrometry.

Abstract In the current era of genomics, lung cancer research has made great strides in dissecting the molecular basis of individual tumors. As more mutations are identified, it is clear that the research community needs to interrogate multiple genes to generate an accurate molecular profile for each individual tumor. Molecular classification of large sample sets requires a flexible high-throughput solution that can easily adapt to newly discovered mutations as well as detect minority alleles of mutated DNA. Validation of key mutations requires screening against thousands of samples with a more directed, high-throughput technique such as MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry (MassARRAY® system). We have evaluated the LungCarta™ Panel, a panel targeting 213 somatic mutations in 26 genes frequently mutated in Non-Small Cell Lung Adenocarcinoma (NSCLC). The method relies on multiplex PCR followed by single base extension and analysis using MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry. This panel was designed from a candidate pool of more than 1000 mutations identified in the large scale sequencing study with further selection and priority given to mutations that may be implicated in key pathways or of interest for clinical research. Frequently mutated genes such as EGFR, KRAS, BRAF and NRAS are well-represented and newly identified genes were included for further confirmation against larger sample numbers including MAP2K1, EPHA3, NTRKs, STK11, TP53 and DDR2. For verification of this panel we have screened a set of 37 lung tumor DNA samples isolated from formalin fixed paraffin embedded (FFPE) NSCL Adenocarcinomas. These samples were previously characterized for EGFR, KRAS, ERBB2, PIK3CA and BRAF. We identified mutations in 23 samples (62%) localized in 10 genes including 9 novel mutations and all of the 13 previously known mutations were verified. Interestingly, four of the samples contained more than one mutation with two samples carrying 2 separate mutations in the EGFR gene. In addition, by performing a quality test of the FFPE DNA we were able to significantly reduce the DNA amount used for testing, a necessity as the amount of DNA obtained from NSCLC FFPE sample is low. In conclusion, we show that MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry is an ideal tool for high-throughput screening of these types of genetic lesions in NSCLC. The LungCarta Panel provides a targeted, mid-density research panel for cost-effective and rapid analysis. Key somatic mutations in previously annotated genes and pathways can be rapidly confirmed against larger sample numbers. The discovery and confirmation of mutation profiles by tumor subtype will supplement other clinical research observations such as histology and grade to uncover new directions in translational and clinical research on NSCLC. Citation Format: Antoinette Lemoine, Raphael Saffroy, Nelly Bosselut, Jean-Francois Morere, Aleksey Nakorchevsky, Dirk van den Boom, Mathias Ehrich, Darryl Irwin, Anders Nygren. High throughput somatic mutation profiling in non-small cell lung adenocarcinoma using MALDI-TOF Mass spectrometry. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 104th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2013 Apr 6-10; Washington, DC. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2013;73(8 Suppl):Abstract nr 1211. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2013-1211