Frequency Of Positive Emotions Research Articles

Assessment of the Psychosocial Impact of Pancreatic Cancer Surveillance in High-Risk Individuals.

Pancreatic cancer (PC) surveillance of high-risk individuals (HRIs) downstages PC and improves survival. However, it remains less clear whether PC surveillance has a positive psychosocial impact on HRIs. Herein, we aimed to define the attitudes and beliefs of HRIs undergoing PC surveillance, and the immediate and sustained psychosocial impact of PC surveillance in HRIs. 100 HRIs undergoing PC surveillance by endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) completed three surveys addressing different components of the psychosocial impact of PC surveillance. Logistic regression analyses were performed to identify predictive factors relating to these components. Most HRIs reported increased perceived benefits of PC surveillance, self-efficacy, and perceived severity of PC. HRIs reported few negative emotions prior to surveillance and frequent positive emotions after surveillance. Compared to prior to surveillance, there was a 53.5% decrease in the level of distress reported by HRIs after surveillance, which was sustained for 4-6 weeks post-surveillance. Family history of PC and lower self-reported mental health were identified as predictors for increased perceived susceptibility to PC (p < 0.01) and greater change in distress pre- to post-surveillance (p < 0.01), respectively. Our findings suggest that PC surveillance can lead to sustained psychosocial benefits in HRIs.

Emotion Dysregulation Linked to Depression Symptoms in a Sub-Saharan Sample of Adolescent University Students

Emotions are fundamental to human development and survival across the lifespan. Adolescence is a volatile and critical developmental period characterized by frequent high-intensity positive and negative emotions. Emotion dysregulation and depression symptoms are common occurrences in adolescence. This study explored the association between emotion regulation difficulties and depressive symptoms in adolescents. The study was anchored on the extended process model of emotion regulation. The study employed a descriptive-analytical design and sampled 352 adolescents, ages 18-19, from the United States International University-Africa, Kenya. SPSS® v28 was used to analyze data and apply descriptive and inferential statistics. The study found no gender or ethnic differences in emotion regulation. However, there was a significant association between emotion regulation difficulties and depression, χ2 (3) = 12.133, p = 0.007, V = 0.186, and a positive and significant linear relationship between the variables, r (352) = 0.229, p &lt; 0.001, r2 = 0.052. Notably, the higher the emotion regulation difficulties, the higher the depression levels. The study concluded that emotionally dysregulated adolescent university students are particularly vulnerable to developing psychological symptoms of depression.

The effect of information and communications technology use on the well-being of older Hong Kong Chinese adults

ABSTRACT The use of information and communications technology (ICT) has increased across all regions and age groups. However, little research has examined older adults’ use of ICT for different purposes. To address this research gap, the current study investigates the effects of ICT use for four purposes – social, leisure, financial, and medical – on the well-being of older adults. Most importantly, this study explores whether social support from friends may account for the observed positive effects of ICT use for social and leisure purposes. A total of 525 Hong Kong Chinese adults aged 60 and above (M age = 68.7, SD = 6.27, Range = 60–100 years) completed an interview session to measure their ICT use for various purposes, social support from friends, and well-being indicators, including life satisfaction, positive and negative emotions and cognitive functioning. The results demonstrate that ICT use for all four purposes was associated with more frequent positive emotions and improved cognitive functioning. Moreover, ICT use for leisure and financial purposes was associated with higher levels of life satisfaction and fewer negative emotions. Social support was found to partially account for the effects of ICT use for social and leisure purposes on life satisfaction and positive emotions. These findings suggest that ICT use for all purposes is beneficial to older adults, and that ICT use may improve the emotional well-being of older adults by allowing for greater support from friends.

Experimental effects of social behavior on well-being.

Subjective well-being is characterized by relatively frequent positive emotions, relatively infrequent negative emotions, and high life satisfaction. Although myriad research topics related to subjective well-being have been explored - from how it should be measured to how it affects physical health - a key finding is that social connections are crucial. Researchers are therefore increasingly exploring whether subjective well-being can be improved through interventions that encourage specific types of social behaviors, including prosociality, gratitude, extraversion, and brief social interactions. We review this recent work, highlighting potential behavioral and psychological mechanisms underlying the effectiveness of such interventions, along with their boundary conditions.

The clinical significance of binge eating among older adult women: an investigation into health correlates, psychological wellbeing, and quality of life

BackgroundOne type of overnutrition, binge eating (BE; eating an unusually large amount of food with loss of control), is prevalent among older adult women. Yet, little is known about the clinical significance of this eating disorder pathology in older adults, especially in relation to health outcomes used in geriatrics, while controlling for associations with body mass index (BMI).MethodWomen (N = 227) aged 60–94 completed two measures of BE and health/wellness questionnaires online. We used multivariable analyses to compare women with Clinical-frequency BE (≥ weekly frequency), Subclinical-frequency BE (< weekly), and No BE on health/wellness outcomes controlling for BMI. We conducted partial correlations controlling for BMI to examine associations between BE severity and health indices.ResultsControlling for BMI, the Clinical-frequency BE group reported poorer health-related quality of life (physical function, role limitations due to both emotional and physical problems, vitality, emotional wellbeing, social function, and pain) and poorer psychological health (depression, body image) compared to both Subclinical-frequency BE and No BE. The Clinical-frequency BE group also reported poorer sleep, nutritious food consumption, general health, and positive affect compared to No BE. Associations between a separate measure of BE severity and health indices confirmed findings from group comparisons.ConclusionWeekly BE may offer a promising screening benchmark for identifying one type of overnutrition in older women that is associated with numerous indicators of poorer health, independent of the effects of BMI. More research is needed to understand risks for and consequences of BE unique to older adult women.Plain English SummaryBinge eating (BE; eating an unusually large amount of food with loss of control), is prevalent among older adult women and is associated with health problems in younger populations. Yet, little is known about how BE is related to other health problems in older adults. We compared health behaviors, physical health, health-related quality of life, and psychological health between older adult women who reported weekly or more frequent BE (i.e., Clinical BE), those with low frequency BE (i.e., Subclinical BE), and those with no BE, while accounting for BMI. Older women in the Clinical BE group reported poorer health-related quality of life, more depression symptoms, and worse body image compared to the Subclinical BE and No BE groups. Compared to the No BE group, the Clinical BE group also reported poorer sleep, less frequent consumption of nutritious foods, worse health, and less frequent positive emotions. Using a separate measure of BE severity, we found similar associations with these health outcomes. Engaging in weekly BE may represent one type of overnutrition behavior in older women that is associated with numerous indicators of poorer health. More research is needed to understand risks for and consequences of BE unique to older adult women.

Well-Being After Psychopathology: A Transformational Research Agenda

If one struggles with depression, anxiety, or suicidal impulses, what is the best outcome that one can hope for? Can psychopathology be a bridge to a better place where people operate with autonomy and self-mastery, enjoy healthy relationships, experience frequent positive emotions, and view life as meaningful and purposeful? Studies of national samples have revealed that a substantial number of people with depression, panic disorder, and suicidal impulses go on to achieve high levels of psychological well-being. We consider the practical and theoretical implications of these findings and call for a transformational mental-health agenda that focuses on good outcomes.

Perceptions of the Yangtze River cruise ship brand based on text semantic analysis: A web big data perspective

Relying on the rich natural and human resources of the Yangtze River, the Yangtze River cruise has been a popular and famous tourism route. This study adopts a big data approach to study the perception of and satisfaction with the Yangtze River cruise brand, so as to come up with some practical suggestions for the enhancement of its value. Based on the analysis of the current development of the Yangtze River cruise tour, this paper conducted a textual analysis on 2,260 user reviews of two important Chinese travel OTA companies (Ctrip.com and Tuniu.com) through the theory and method of web text mining. A word frequency analysis, the construction of semantic networks, and a sentiment analysis were carried out. The results of the study show that the market perception of each cruise company’s brand is not very different, and the relevant companies have not yet developed their own special products and services. “Service” is the most frequently mentioned high-frequency word in tourists’ reviews. The sentiment analysis shows that the frequency of positive emotions in tourists’ reviews is high (exceeding 80 %). Through the satisfaction analysis of six dimensions of Yangtze River cruises, it is found that “cruise dining” and “cruise entertainment” are weak points.

Reducing anxiety in the foreign language classroom: A positive psychology approach

This paper reports on a study that took a positive psychology approach to foreign language anxiety reduction. More specifically, it investigated whether reminiscing about language achievements could effectively diminish the learners’ foreign language classroom anxiety. It also explored the patterns nested in the reminiscing process. To this end, 88 first language Chinese university students of English were randomly assigned into experimental (n = 43) and control groups (n = 45), who filled out a short-form anxiety scale before and after a 30-day intervention. The experimental group students were also requested to record what they had reminisced about as well as their emotional experiences during each lab session. The results showed that the dimensional and overall levels of anxiety decreased significantly over time in the experimental group but remained stable in the control group. In addition, textual analysis showed that the experimental group students recalled their progress in particularly speaking, listening, writing, reading, vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation, as well as non-language proficiency progress such as increased cross-cultural knowledge and testing ability. This reminiscing was linked to more frequent positive emotions than negative emotions. The findings and their implications for foreign language anxiety research and foreign language teaching and learning were discussed.

Managing Teachers' Job Attitudes: The Potential Benefits of Being a Happy and Emotional Intelligent Teacher.

According to the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions, the frequency of positive emotions is associated with the development of positive attitudes, cognitions, and behaviors in organizational contexts. However, positive and negative attitudes at work might also be influenced by different personal and job resources. While emotional intelligence has been significantly associated with positive job attitudes and personal well-being, no studies have yet examined the joint role of teacher happiness and emotional intelligence in key teacher job attitudes. The present study assesses whether emotional intelligence interacts with levels of teacher happiness to jointly explain important teacher job attitudes (i.e., job satisfaction and turnover intention). A total sample of 685 teaching professionals (431 female) filled out a battery of scales including subjective happiness, emotional intelligence, job satisfaction, and turnover intention. Our results revealed that subjective happiness was significantly associated with both higher job satisfaction and lower turnover intention. Likewise, emotional intelligence was positively related to happiness and job satisfaction, and negatively related to turnover intention. Finally, interaction analysis showed the main effects of happiness and emotional intelligence in explaining teacher job attitudes. Beyond the main effects, the interaction effects of happiness and emotional intelligence were significant in predicting all teachers' job attitude indicators, even controlling for the effects of their sociodemographic variables. This work expands our knowledge about the role of teachers' positive emotions in the development of positive work attitudes, and also supports the inclusion of emotional skills in future teacher preparation programs as resources to facilitate work-related well-being.

Referential Activity Differentially Mediates Expression of Positive and Negative Emotions in Borderline Personality Disorder.

Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) is a high risk and prevalent personality disorder that is associated with increased negative emotions, decreased positive emotions, and impairments in symbolization and impaired reflective functioning. These dimensions, while they may impact one another, have not been investigated concurrently from qualitative, linguistic narratives. We hypothesized a BPD group would have lower expression of positive emotions and greater expression of negative emotions and less reflective function than healthy controls. Additionally, we explored the role of referential activity (an index of symbolic capacity) between BPD and healthy controls in the context of valenced emotional expression. An adult, female BPD group (n = 13) and a demographically matched healthy control group (n = 14) were recruited and administered the Adult Attachment Interview and/or the Object Relations Inventory. Computerized text analyses were used to assess positive emotion and negative emotion, the Weighted Referential Activity Dictionaries to assess referential activity, and the Computerized Reflective Function dictionary. On the Object Relations Inventory, the BPD group expressed more frequent negative emotions and less frequent positive emotions; on the Adult Attachment Interview, the BPD group exhibited less expression of positive emotions. There were no differences between BPD and controls on referential activity or reflective functioning on either interview. However, BPD status fully mediated the significant relationship between referential activity and negative emotion expression. The BPD group utilized more referential activity when expressing negative emotions than controls. Conversely, the control group utilized more referential activity when expressing positive emotions than controls. Referential activity seems to play an important role in explaining the BPD versus control difference in valenced linguistic emotional expression. Furthermore, these results suggest the object relations inventory elicits more robust linguistic features relevant to BPD.

Teaching Happiness to Teachers - Development and Evaluation of a Training in Subjective Well-Being.

Teachers’ health is a persistent challenge for educational systems all over the world. Moreover, research results – especially in the domain of positive psychology – indicate that high levels of well-being are associated with additional benefits improving teachers’ professional performance. Therefore, a training to foster subjective well-being with one training day, two booster sessions, and exercises before, during, and after the meetings was developed. It consisted of about 10 h of face-to-face time and about 3 h for the exercises in total over a 5-week training period. Main contents were conditions and consequences of positive and negative emotions and well-being, emotion regulation, time management, savoring and gratitude and the application of positive psychological interventions (like Three Good Things). Analyses of planned contrasts by means of a waiting control group design with three measurement points (pre, post, and follow-up) showed a significantly higher increase for the training group (n = 42) than for the control group (n = 47) in the frequency of positive emotions, life satisfaction, and flourishing (interaction effects d = 0.44, d = 0.31, and d = 0.32) and a significantly stronger decrease in the frequency of negative emotions, perceived stress, and experiencing emotional exhaustion (interaction effects d = 0.69, d = 0.51, and d = 0.47) from pre to 1-month follow-up. Training effects were also visible up to 5 months, although no control group could be realized for this period due to the field approach.

Specific or transdiagnostic? The occurrence of emotions and their association with distress in the daily life of patients with borderline personality disorder compared to clinical and healthy controls

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is characterized by more frequent and more intense negative emotions and less frequent positive emotions in daily life than healthy controls (HC) experience, but there is limited empirical evidence regarding whether this is a transdiagnostic or disorder-specific finding and which specific emotions are especially distressing in BPD. We assessed participants’ current emotions and distress every 15 min over a 24-h period using e-diaries to investigate the frequency, intensity, and the associated distress of specific emotions. To test the disorder specificity, we used multilevel modeling to compare 43 female patients with BPD, 28 patients with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 20 patients with bulimia nervosa (BN), and 28 HC. Patients with BPD exhibited anger more frequently than any of the clinical or healthy control groups, demonstrating specificity. The quality of anger accounted for additional distress beyond the pure emotional intensity. In patients with BPD, joy was associated with reduced distress, which was not the case in HC or PTSD. However, the majority of the comparisons (anxiety, sadness, shame, disgust, jealousy, guilt, interest) revealed transdiagnostic patterns. The distress-enhancing or distress-reducing effects of anger and joy might represent an important part of affective dysregulation in BPD.

Explaining Adolescents’ Affect: A Time-Use Study of Opportunities for Support and Autonomy across Interpersonal Contexts

In order to uncover the reason why adolescents generally experience less positive emotional experience in the presence of parents, we compared the association of perceived opportunities for autonomy and support to adolescents’ positive emotional states when they were with their parents vs. in other interpersonal contexts. Thirty-one white, lower socioeconomic status, ninth grade students evaluated the fulfillment of their autonomy and support needs and their emotional experiences at multiple time points within a variety of interpersonal contexts over a one-week period. Hierarchical linear modeling of 1268 surveys showed that, compared to when they were with only their parents, these adolescents experienced relatively more frequent positive emotions when they were with peers, or with other adults in addition to or in the absence of their parents. Moreover, perceived opportunities for autonomy and support were associated with positive emotional experiences at a given time point. Perceived autonomy and support operated differently depending on the interpersonal context; the effects of these opportunities were smaller in the context of parent-only interactions than those involving interactions with other people. This study contributes to the literature on adolescent affect by showing that the moment-by-moment, intra-individual psychological affordances of autonomy and support are differentially associated with emotional experiences depending on the interpersonal context. Furthermore, these findings suggest that individuation-relatedness theory appears to be applicable to a relatively understudied population, namely white adolescents from low-SES families.

LGBTQ Adolescents’ Positive and Negative Emotions and Experiences in U.S. High Schools

In a national survey of more than 19,000 U.S. high school students, we compared how LGBTQ youth and their non-LGBTQ peers felt at school and how they perceived social and academic experiences. We examined differences in emotions and school experiences across gender identities, sexual identities, and their intersections. LGBTQ adolescents reported significantly more frequent negative emotions and bullying, consistent with previous research. LGBTQ students also reported less frequent experiences of positive emotions at school and less frequent positive school experiences (i.e., positive peer and teacher relationships, subjective task value, and persistence support). Students who were both gender and sexual identity minority reported the most frequent negative and least frequent positive experiences at school, compared to students who were neither a gender or sexual identity minority. Analyses of the intersection of gender and sexual identity showed that heterosexual male students experienced more frequent positive emotions and school experiences, and fewer negative emotions and bullying, compared to all other groups. We discuss how these differences might be addressed through school interventions and future research.

Smile intensity in social networking profile photographs is related to greater scientific achievements

Theory and research indicates that individuals with more frequent positive emotions are better at attaining goals at work and in everyday life. In the current study we examined whether the expression of genuine positive emotions by scientists was positively correlated with work-related accomplishments, defined by bibliometric (e.g. number of citations) and sociometric (number of followers for scholarly updates) indices. Using a sample of 440 scientists from a social networking site for researchers, multiple raters coded smile intensity (full smile, partial smile, or no smile) in publicly available photographs. We found that scientists who presented a full smile had the same quantity of publications yet of higher quality (e.g. citations per paper) and attracted more followers to their updates compared to less positive emotionally expressive peers; results remained after controlling for age and sex. Thin-slicing approaches to the beneficial effects of positive emotionality offer an ecologically valid approach to complement experimental and longitudinal evidence. Evidence linking positive emotional expressions to scientific impact and social influence provides further support for broaden and build models of positive emotions.

Subjective well-being and cardiometabolic health: An 8–11 year study of midlife adults

ObjectiveIndividuals who are satisfied and experience frequent positive emotions tend to have reduced risk for coronary heart disease (CHD). However, conflicting evidence exists and little research has investigated whether well-being is associated with early-warning indicators of biological risk that precede CHD. We investigated whether life satisfaction and positive emotions longitudinally predicted reduced risk of incident cardiometabolic conditions and healthier cardiometabolic risk scores, which may provide insight into underlying mechanisms and novel prevention targets. MethodsInitially healthy men and women (N=754–854) reported their baseline life satisfaction and positive emotions. During follow-up, presence of manifest cardiometabolic conditions was assessed and a separate cardiometabolic risk score was constructed from eight biomarkers. Poisson and linear regression analyses tested whether life satisfaction and positive emotions were associated with reduced incident disease risk and lower cardiometabolic risk scores 8–11years later. ResultsLife satisfaction and positive emotions were each prospectively associated with reduced risk of manifest conditions, controlling for demographics and family history of CHD. Associations were attenuated for positive emotions after adjusting for depressive symptoms and for life satisfaction after adjusting for health behaviors. Life satisfaction was associated with lower cardiometabolic risk scores until adding health behaviors, but positive emotions were not (regardless of the included covariates). ConclusionWell-being, particularly life satisfaction, is associated with reduced risk for incident cardiometabolic conditions in minimally-adjusted models. However, accounting for underlying behavioral pathways attenuates the association. Low levels of life satisfaction (but not positive emotions) may also provide early warning of cardiometabolic risk prior to disease development.

Relationship between Positive Emotions, Adult Attachment Style and Life Satisfaction among Adults

Fredrickson and Branigan (2005) define emotions as short lived experiences that produce changes in physiology, thoughts, and behaviours. In the academic literature, the term positive emotions is included within the broad term positive affect which also includes longer lasting positive moods (Diener, 2000). Positive emotions are more than the absence of negative emotions. For example, feeling happy or excited is more than not feeling sad or bored.Evidence suggests that people who experience frequent positive emotions tend to be successful and proficient across many spheres of life. This means that happiness is linked to successful outcomes. This is not merely because success leads to happiness, but because positive affect bring about success. Positive moods and emotions lead people to think, feel, and act in ways that promote both resource building and involvement with approach goals. This is explained by the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions (Fredrickson, 1998; 2001). The theory suggests that positive emotions (viz. enjoyment, happiness, joy, pride, interest) broaden one's awareness and encourage new, diverse, and exploratory thoughts and actions. Over time, these novel experiences collectively build up consequential resources and skills that can change people's lives. For example, idle curiosity can become expert knowledge, or affection and shared amusement can become a lifelong supportive relationship.Positive emotions influence a number of positive outcomes in life. People who experience and express positive emotions more often are likely to be satisfied with their lives and have more fulfilling interpersonal relationships. They are more satisfied at their job, are helpful to other people, and are more likely to reach desired goals in life. (Diener, Suh, Lucas, &Smith, 1999).Positive emotions and subjective well-being are closely linked. Positive emotions are believed to be powerful indicators of wellbeing (Fredrickson, 2009). Frequently experiencing positive affect is proposed to be one of the three components of subjective well-being (along with infrequent experience of negative affect and feeling satisfied with life) which is considered an important outcome in psychological research (Diener, 2000).Attachment is basically the strong emotional bonds that are formed between an individual and his/her significant others (Green & Scholes, 2004). These bonds develop from the fundamental bond that a child forms with his/her first and primary caregiver (Broberg, Mothander, Granqvist, & Ivarsson, 2008) and remain relatively stable throughout adulthood (Shaver & Brennan, 1992).Bartholomew and Horowitz (1991) propose four different adult attachment styles based on individual's level of avoidance and anxiety. The first style, includes individuals who have a sense of worthiness as well as a perception of others being responsive and accepting. Secure individuals experience low anxiety and low avoidance. The remaining three styles, learful-avoidant, and dismissive avoidant, are insecure styles of attachment. The first insecure style, includes individuals who show low avoidance and high anxiety and view themselves as being unworthy of love. The fearful-avoidant style include individuals who feel unworthy and have distrust in intimacy. They experience high anxiety and avoidance and feel that by avoiding intimacy with others, they are protected from the rejection they expect in close relationships. Finally, the dismissive-avoidant style includes individuals who protect themselves against disappointment by avoiding close relationships.In short, adults low on both anxiety and avoidance as described as secure, adults high on attachment anxiety but low on avoidance as preoccupied, those high on avoidance but low on anxiety as dismissive, and those high on both anxiety and avoidance as fearful.Life satisfaction is the person's evaluation of his or her life as a whole. …

Validation of the Satisfaction with Life Scale to Brazilians: Evidences of Measurement Noninvariance Across Brazil and US

Satisfaction with life is one of three hallmarks of subjective well-being, along with frequent positive emotions and infrequent negative emotions (Diener et al. in Psychol Bull 125:276–302, 1999), and the satisfaction with life scale (SWLS; Diener et al. in J Pers Assess 49:91–95, 1985) has been used worldwide to evaluate it. The current study seeks to (a) adapt and gather evidence of validity and reliability of the SWLS for a Brazilian sample, (b) evaluate gender equivalence on Brazilian university students, and (c) test for invariance between Brazilian and US samples. Participants were US (N = 241), and Brazilian (N = 1,388) undergraduates. Results from the Brazilian sample, based on confirmatory factor analyses and measurement invariance tests, showed: (a) evidence of validity of the scale, (b) scalar invariance across gender, (c) scalar invariance within group. However, nonequivalence between Brazil and US samples was found. Such results suggest that within comparisons can be conducted with Brazilian undergraduates, but comparisons between Brazil and the US might be misleading due to lack of invariance. Similar findings have already been reported in other cultures and raise questions about cross cultural studies with this scale.

Secondary Control Belief Combinations (Adjustment and Acceptance) and Well-Being in Older Adults

Few studies of older individuals have directly assessed secondary control beliefs, previously defined by Morling and Evered in 2006 as a combination of psychological adjustment and acceptance. We classified older adults ( n = 223, M age = 85 years, 62% women) into three categories of secondary control beliefs: psychological adjustment only, psychological adjustment and acceptance, and neither psychological adjustment nor acceptance. Relative to individuals who emphasized beliefs about psychological adjustment only, those who emphasized a combination of secondary control beliefs (including both psychological adjustment and acceptance), reported more frequent positive emotions, greater life satisfaction, and less severe chronic conditions. Our findings have implications in both theoretical and applied contexts. Theoretically, our findings extend contemporary thinking on secondary control. In applied contexts, they suggest ways of thinking that could enhance well-being in the very old.

HIGH SELF-ESTEEM INCREASES SPONTANEOUS ATTENTION TO POSITIVE INFORMATION: AN EVENT-RELATED BRAIN POTENTIAL STUDY

By using event-related brain potentials (ERPs), the current study tested a hypothesis that high self-esteem increases spontaneous attention to positive information and influences negativity bias, defined as greater attention to negative information than positive information. Participants were asked to judge the pleasantness of positive and negative trait words infrequently presented in a sequence of neutral words. Compared to positive trait words, negative trait words elicited larger N2 amplitudes, thought to be elicited by a mismatch between the expectation and stimuli presented; this tendency was more extreme in individuals with a mindset associated with positive feelings and thinking, as measured by self-esteem, self-relatedness to positive trait words, and frequency of positive emotions in daily life. In contrast, no differences were found between the emotional words at the P3 amplitude, due to the set of stimuli being manipulated so that the emotional words were similar in arousal.