Extraction Of Free Fatty Acids Research Articles

Ultrasound assisted extraction of Nannochloropsis: Effects on lipid extraction efficiency and lipid stability

Ultrasound assisted extraction of microalgal lipids from Nannochloropsis in presence of hexane/isopropanol extraction solvent was studied. The results were compared with adequate control extractions, using the same solvent system, solvent contact time and extraction temperature but in the absence of ultrasound. Ultrasound assisted extraction at 0.45 W/mL and control extractions at elevated temperatures (comparable to the temperature induced by the ultrasound) resulted in similar lipid, free fatty acid and pigment extraction efficiencies and the free fatty acid and pigment content of the lipid extracts was comparable. The control and ultrasound assisted extractions did not influence the lipolytic and oxidative stability of the lipids during extraction. These results indicated that the positive impact of ultrasound assisted extraction can almost completely be attributed to the ultrasound induced increased temperature. Simpler extraction techniques applying moderate heating (± 40 °C) in presence of lipid extraction solvents are most probably more straightforward to implement industrially compared to ultrasound assisted extraction.

A LOGICAL AND MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE PHASE EQUILIBRIUM MODELING AND ITS APPLICATION AS A TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION BY EXAMPLE OF THE TRIGLYCERIDE MATERIALS TRANSFORMATION INTO FATTY ACID ESTERS

This study was conducted in order to create a logical and mathematical model for the production of fatty acid esters from triglyceride raw materials, based on methods adapted to appropriate systems and ultimately aimed at solving problems of improving the quality of products, creating flexible technological schemes focused on a variety of raw materials and products, without time-consuming and lengthy experiments. The logical-mathematical model is based on the UNIFAC calculation model in a modified form, which provides data calculation adequate to the experiment. The modified UNIFAC model is confirmed by a set of experimental data, the calculation of technological parameters shows acceptability in predicting the optimal technological conditions of the processes used. The possibility of achieving compliance with the calculated experimental data is shown by examples of using the model in solving problems during the development of multi-stage extraction of free fatty acids from triglyceride raw materials when evaluating the composition of raw materials and liquid phases in extraction systems at different stages of the extraction process, as well as the obtained products using the gas chromatography method. The generalized data are presented in the form of a logical and mathematical model that describes the system of using the calculated data necessary for the production process. The logical-mathematical model takes into account several alternative variants of the technology, includes criteria by which the choice of a variant of the technological process takes place. The results obtained represent an important stage in the development of digital production technologies and experience in the development of technological innovations. The above model becomes the basis for transferring the technology of transformation of triglyceride raw materials into fatty acid esters to an innovative level, which lays the foundation for creating a cyber-physical system combining the work of a process engineer and a digital system.

Unraveling the Molecular Mechanisms of Alcohol-Mediated Skin Permeation Enhancement: Insights from Molecular Dynamics Simulations.

The application of alcohols as permeation enhancers in pharmaceutical and cosmetic formulations has attracted considerable attention, owing to their skin permeation-enhancing effect. Nonetheless, the elucidation of the fundamental mechanisms underlying the skin permeation-enhancing effect remains elusive. In this study, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were employed to investigate the effect of 1,2-propanediol (1,2-PDO), 1,2-butanediol (1,2-BDO), and ethanol (EtOH) on the stratum corneum (SC) model membrane. The results showed that the effect of alcohols on the SC model membrane displayed a concentration-dependent nature. The alcohols can interact with SC lipids and exhibit a remarkable ability to selectively extract free fatty acid (FFA) molecules from the SC model membrane and make the SC looser. Meanwhile, 1,2-BDO and EtOH can penetrate into SC lipid bilayers at higher concentrations, leading to the formation of continuous hydrophilic defects in SC. The FFA extraction and the formation of continuous hydrophilic defects induced ceramide (CER) tail chains to become more disordered and fluid and also weakened the hydrogen bonding (H-bonding) network among SC lipids. Both the FFA extraction and the continuous hydrophilic defect formation endowed alcohols with the permeation-enhancing effect. The constrained simulations revealed that the free energy barriers decreased for the permeation of the hydrophilic model molecule (COL) across the SC model membranes containing alcohols, particularly for 1,2-BDO and EtOH. The possible permeation-enhancing mechanisms of alcohols were proposed correspondingly. This work not only provided a deep understanding of the transdermal permeation-enhancing behavior of alcohols at the molecular level but also provided necessary reference information for designing effective transdermal drug delivery systems in applications.

Reactive Extraction of Free Fatty Acids from Jatropha Oil as a Pre-processing Step in Biodiesel Preparation: Experimental Evaluation and Parametric Optimization

Reactive Extraction of Free Fatty Acids from Jatropha Oil as a Pre-processing Step in Biodiesel Preparation: Experimental Evaluation and Parametric Optimization

Kinetics of reactive extraction of free fatty acids in jatropha oil with monoethanolamine in methanol: A key biodiesel pre-processing step

Unrefined vegetable oils and fats contain free fatty acids and they ought to be minimized for use in food and non-food applications. Traditional deacidification of vegetable oils and fats adopts alkali neutralization for the removal of free fatty acids. Here, a simple method for the removal of free fatty acids from jatropha oil by reactive extraction using monoethanolamine in methanol is proposed. Reactive extraction kinetic studies with initial free fatty acids concentration (0.1–0.5 kmol/m3) using monoethanolamine (0.4141–1.6568 kmol/m3) in methanol at 30 °C was performed and investigated. Parameters like distribution coefficient, equilibrium complexation constant for free fatty acids extraction were obtained to arrive at equilibrium and kinetic conclusions. Most importantly, the criteria for reaction regime was established through Hatta number. The study revealed that reactive extraction of free fatty acids using monoethanolamine in methanol falls under reaction regime 2. The study demonstrated that reactive extraction was highly successful in reduction of the free fatty acids in jatropha oil. Further biodiesel was prepared using the deacidified oil and the specifications obtained were well within the standard ASTM limits.

The socio‐economic impact of mitigating the challenges at the artisanal palm oil mills in Ghana

AbstractThere has been tremendous demand for palm oil globally due to it varied used in the food, biofuel, and oleochemicals. Ghana is a net importer of palm oil despite producing some best yielding varieties. This is ascribed to operation of palm oil artisanal mills, which account for close to 80% of palm oil production. Artisans are bedeviled with enormous challenges in their processing activities but possess the key of increasing palm oil production by 6%, which is translated into 210,800 tons per annum. This review, being mindful of net importation reduction, focused on the efforts in addressing some of challenges at the artisanal mills in Ghana to achieving some sustainable development goals (SDGs) and placing emphasis on the social‐economic impact. An average free fatty acid and oil extraction ratio for Ghana was 15.55% and 9.55%, respectively. This paper revealed that through policy, research and extension service most of these challenges could be mitigated. Top among the challenge facing artisans were oil extraction ratio and quality of oil production, which demonstrated a positive correlation with a better access to premium market and working conditions, an increase in income and purchasing power, achieving food and energy security and prevention of ecosystem depletion.

Increased plasma fatty acid clearance, not fatty acid concentration, is associated with muscle insulin resistance in people with obesity

BackgroundAlthough it is well-accepted that increased plasma free fatty acid (FFA) concentration causes lipid overload and muscle insulin resistance in people with obesity, plasma FFA concentration poorly predicts insulin-resistant glucose metabolism. It has been proposed that hyperinsulinemia in people with obesity sufficiently inhibits adipose tissue triglyceride lipolysis to prevent FFA-induced insulin resistance. However, we hypothesized enhanced FFA clearance in people with obesity, compared with lean people, prevents a marked increase in plasma FFA even when FFA appearance is high. MethodsWe assessed FFA kinetics during basal conditions and during a hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp procedure in 14 lean people and 46 people with obesity by using [13C]palmitate tracer infusion. Insulin-stimulated muscle glucose uptake rate was evaluated by dynamic PET-imaging of skeletal muscles after [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose injection. ResultsPlasma FFA clearance was accelerated in participants with obesity and correlated negatively with muscle insulin sensitivity without a difference between lean and obese participants. Furthermore, insulin infusion increased FFA clearance and the increase was greater in obese than lean participants. ConclusionsOur findings suggest plasma FFA extraction efficiency, not just plasma FFA concentration, is an important determinant of the cellular fatty acid load and the stimulatory effect of insulin on FFA clearance counteracts some of its antilipolytic effect.

Scaling up extractive deacidification of waste cooking oil

Biodiesel produced from waste feedstocks can play a significant role in fighting climate change, improperly disposed waste and growing energy demand. Waste feedstocks such as used cooking oil have a great potential for energy production. However, they often have to be purified from free fatty acids prior to biodiesel production. Extractive deacidification with deep eutectic solvents is a promising alternative to conventional purification methods.To evaluate the process of extractive deacidification of waste cooking oil, a full set of physical, hydrodynamic and kinetic data were experimentally determined on a laboratory scale. Hydrodynamic and kinetic experiments were performed in three geometrically similar jacketed agitated vessels. Vessels were equipped with axial flow impeller (four pitched blade impeller). Physical properties (density, viscosity and surface tension) were experimentally determined. Preliminary hydrodynamic experiments involved several model systems without mass transfer. As a result, correlation between power number and Reynolds number as well as scale-up criterion was developed. Obtained dependencies were correlated with the physical properties. Mixing intensity for achieving complete dispersion was determined. Second stage of investigation involved two sets of experiments, hydrodynamic and kinetic, with interphase mass transfer (the extraction of free fatty acids from waste cooking oil with deep eutectic solvent, potassium carbonate:ethylene glycol, 1:10). Obtained results enabled understanding interphase mass transfer and prediction of mass transfer coefficient from the derived dimensionless correlations. The values of volumetric mass transfer coefficients were smaller for the dispersed phase, indicating that the prevailing mass transfer resistance was within the droplets. The working hypothesis was that the same process result should be achieved at the same dispersion rate, and that hypothesis was confirmed – at all scales extraction efficiency was 97.9 ± 0.1%.

Fatty acid solvent extraction from palm oil using liquid–liquid film contactor: Mathematical model including mass transfer effects

Free fatty acid (FFA) presence in vegetable oils (VO) promotes unwanted organoleptic characteristics. Its traditional removal is carried out by steam distillation (deodorization). However, the high temperature of this process promotes the formation of toxic components such as glycidol esters (GE) and 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD). FFA extraction by solvents is an alternative refining process at low temperatures which preserves natural phytonutrients that are thermically destroyed or distilled in deodorization. In this work, a model to predict continuous co-current FFA extraction with a liquid–liquid film contactor (LLFC) using ethanol as a solvent at low temperature (<80 °C) was developed and experimentally validated. This model includes the prediction of the FFA mass transfer from the oil-rich phase to the interface. Experimental validation also assessed the effects of flow rate (0.5–1.5 kg/h), ethanol to oil mass flow rate (1–2), FFA initial concentration (2–4 wt.%), and LLFC stages employed on FFA removal. At the best operational conditions experimentally evaluated, it was possible to reduce the FFA content from 4 wt.% to 0.08 wt.%. The mathematical model shows an approximate description of the LLFC behavior and mass transfer effects that can be used for the scale-up of the technology.

Comprehensive lipidomics reveals phenotypic differences in hepatic lipid turnover in ALD and NAFLD during alcohol intoxication

Background & AimsIn experimental models, alcohol induces acute changes in lipid metabolism that cause hepatocyte lipoapoptosis and inflammation. Here we study human hepatic lipid turnover during controlled alcohol intoxication.MethodsWe studied 39 participants with 3 distinct hepatic phenotypes: alcohol-related liver disease (ALD), non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and healthy controls. Alcohol was administrated via nasogastric tube over 30 min. Hepatic and systemic venous blood was sampled simultaneously at 3 time points: baseline, 60, and 180 min after alcohol intervention. Liver biopsies were sampled 240 min after alcohol intervention. We used ultra-high performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry to measure levels of more than 250 lipid species from the blood and liver samples.ResultsAfter alcohol intervention, the levels of blood free fatty acid (FFA) and lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) decreased, while triglyceride (TG) increased. FFA was the only lipid class to decrease in NAFLD after alcohol intervention, whereas LPC and FFA decreased and TG increased after intervention in ALD and healthy controls. Fatty acid chain uptake preference in FFAs and LPCs were oleic acid, linoleic acid, arachidonic acid, and docosahexaenoic acid. Hepatic venous blood FFA and LPC levels were lower when compared with systemic venous blood levels throughout the intervention. After alcohol intoxication, liver lipidome in ALD was similar to that in NAFLD.ConclusionsAlcohol intoxication induces rapid changes in circulating lipids including hepatic turnaround from FFA and LPC, potentially leading to lipoapoptosis and steatohepatitis. TG clearance was suppressed in NAFLD, possibly explaining why alcohol and NAFLD are synergistic risk factors for disease progression. These effects may be central to the pathogenesis of ALD.Clinical Trials RegistrationThe study is registered at Clinicaltrials.gov (NCT03018990).Lay summaryWe report that alcohol induces hepatic extraction of free unsaturated fatty acids and lysophosphatidylcholines, hepatotoxic lipids which have not been previously associated with alcohol-induced liver injury. We also found that individuals with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease have reduced lipid turnover during alcohol intoxication when compared with people with alcohol-related fatty liver disease. This may explain why alcohol is particularly more harmful in people with non-alcoholic fatty liver and why elevated BMI and alcohol have a synergistic effect on the risk of liver-related death.

Natural deep eutectic solvent formulations for spirulina: Preparation, intensification, and skin impact

Microalgae are a sustainable source of bioactive compounds like carotenoids, free fatty acids and especially polyunsaturated fatty acids. The extraction of such nonpolar metabolites usually involved nonpolar or toxic solvent like methanol or hexane. We report the first screening of Natural Deep Eutectic Solvents for the extraction of pigments and free fatty acids from spirulina. Natural Deep Eutectic Solvent with a wide range of polarity was screened, and the resulting extracts were compared according to their pigment and free fatty acid contents. The extraction performance was increased, and various metabolite profiles were obtained. A Natural Deep Eutectic Solvent based on glycerol/glucose exhibited a wide range of metabolites, which ranged from polar phycobiliproteins to free fatty acids. Natural Deep Eutectic Solvent based on a fatty acid mixture demonstrated the highest selectivity towards free fatty acids. After intensification of the extraction process, 6 spirulina- Natural Deep Eutectic Solvent formulations and Natural Deep Eutectic Solvent alone were evaluated in terms of the effects on cutaneous inflammation induced by Staphylococcus aureus, as well on 4 bacterial species that are part of the skin microbiota. The glycerol/glucose formulation exhibited an anti-inflammatory effect on keratinocytes stimulated by S. aureus. Nonpolar Natural Deep Eutectic Solvent alone and formulations impacted bacterial viability, especially for S. aureus, thus providing a new approach for the regulation of skin microbiota or product preservation.

A capillary electrophoresis method for free fatty acids screening and acidity determination in biodiesel.

The advent of policies that incentivize or require alternative diesel fuels has increased the demand for the development of fast analytical methods aiming for the quality control of these fuels. This study approached an alternative method for the determination of biodiesel acidity employing capillary zone electrophoresis based on free fatty acids screening and quantification. Sample preparation comprised vortex-assisted liquid-liquid extraction of free fatty acids and was a crucial step for analysis. It was studied through a 32 full factorial design considering sample mass and the stirring time. Then, solvent suitability was evaluated univariately. The free fatty acid screening was carried out employing a capillary zone electrophoresis method able to separate C16:0, C18:0, C18:1 n-9, C18:2 n-6, and C18:3 n-3, major fatty acids in a variety of vegetable oils used for biodiesel synthesis. In addition to the straightforward sample preparation protocol, the running time of the developed method was only 12min. Moreover, ultraviolet absorption indirect detection of analytes was approached to avoid analytes derivatization, considering the lack of chromophore groups in saturated fatty acids. Statistical tests did not evidence any significant differences in the biodiesel acidity determination expressed in percentage of free fatty acids when comparing the proposed capillary zone electrophoresis method and the traditional potentiometric titration approach within the 95% confidence interval, which demonstrates the suitability of this alternative method for the biodiesel quality control in routine.

Adding value to secondary streams of corn wet milling industry

ABSTRACT Corn steep liquor (CSL) is spontaneously fermented, mainly by thermophilic Bacillus strains, producing lipopeptide biosurfactants. These biosurfactants can be extracted with ethyl acetate at the same time that an aqueous phase is generated (named CSL-plus). The results showed that the biosurfactant extraction produced a liquor with a reduced content of fats and minor changes in the micronutrients concentration. The decrease in the fatty acid content is due to the extraction of biosurfactants and free fatty acids contained in the biosurfactant extract, composed mainly of C16 and C18 fatty acids. Therefore, it can be concluded that the extraction of biosurfactants gives a nutritional supplement (CSL-plus) with lower content of fats, improving the nutritional properties of CSL and consequently added value is given to the water stream generated. Moreover, it was demonstrated that the biosurfactant extract from CSL could be used to improve the solubilization of chicken broth cubes.

Walnut oil deacidification by liquid–liquid extraction with ethanol in a single- and multistage crossflow process

Liquid–liquid extraction of vegetable oil with ethanol predominantly removes the components having the greatest affinity for ethanol, such as free fatty acids responsible for the acidity of oil, but also some contaminants such as phthalates. The aim of this work is to study the effect of several operating parameters on the deacidification process: the initial free fatty acid content in oil (3.1, 5.8, 7.6 and 11.7% OA eq.), the ethanol-water content in solvent (70.0/30.0, 80.0/20.0, 87.8/12.2 and 95.6/4.4 g/g), and the oil/solvent ratio (0.50, 0.75 and 1.00 g/g). The economic assessment of the deacidification based on the costs of distilling solvent and neutral oil loss showed that the use of solvents containing 82 to 90 wt.% of ethanol enables to achieve a trade-off between efficiency of the extraction of free fatty acid and the neutral oil losses. A three-stage crosscurrent extraction using a solvent at 88.6 wt.% of ethanol (global solvent/oil ratio: 8.0 g/g) reduced the free fatty acid content from 5.8% OA eq. (in crude walnut oil) to 0.3–0.4% OA eq. with a loss of 4.0% of neutral oil mass. Regarding the extraction of phthalates, our results showed that the lower the water content in the hydroethanolic solvent, the more efficient the extraction of butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP). Moreover, extraction with ethanol has successfully reduced the BBP content below the current regulatory limit.

Profiling free fatty acids in edible oils via magnetic dispersive extraction and comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

The analysis of free fatty acids (FFAs) in edible oils can provide important information for quality control and oil authentication. Herein, we report the comprehensive profiling of FFAs in edible oils via magnetic dispersive extraction combined with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC × GC–MS). A magnetic extractant was designed for dispersive extraction of FFAs. The extraction conditions were carefully optimized. To assess the extraction method, we first use the method for analysis of 7 targeted FFAs. The limits of detection range from 5.6 to 25.8 ng g−1, and the recoveries in oil samples are 81%–107%. We then performed comprehensive profiling of untargeted FFAs in oil by combining the extraction method with GC × GC–MS. A total of 64 FFAs were identified positively or putatively. The proposed method can provide FFA fingerprint data to guide the processing, storage and authentication of edible oils.

Rapid extraction of free fatty acids from edible oil after accelerated storage based on amino-modified magnetic silica nanospheres

Amino-modified magnetic silica nanospheres were prepared and used for the extraction of free fatty acids from edible oil samples for the first time.

A novel process for biodiesel production from sludge palm oil

Typically, sludge palm oil (SPO) which discharged from the palm oil refining process, is a low cost material of potential value, due to its high free fatty acid content. Accordingly, there is potential for upgrading low grade oil into valuable biofuel. In this work, we present a novel method for biodiesel production from SPO. The process consists of two steps (i) free fatty acid (FFA) extraction (ii) enzymatic esterification. Firstly, SPO was saponified by hydroalcoholic solution into soap and glycerol. Secondly, the FFAs obtained were further converted into biodiesel via enzymatic esterification catalyzed by immobilised alginate-PVA lipase beads.•Biodiesel production from sludge palm oil could be completed.•A modified fatty acid extraction was used for SPO fatty acid preparation.•Immobilised alginate-PVA lipase beads were used as biocatalyst for esterification reaction.

Liquid–Liquid Extraction of Neutral Lipids and Free Fatty Acids from Microalgae Oil

Microalgae have been established as an excellent source of biomass for biodiesel production. However, the high free fatty acids content of the oil hinders the oil refining by conventional processes. The aim of this study was to separate neutral lipids in high acidity oils, such as microalgae, by determining the equilibrium data of the extraction system including triacylglycerol, free fatty acids, hexane, and hydrous ethanol (95%). Because the microalgae oil has a complex composition, a model oil blend analogous infatty acid composition to Desmodesmus communis oil was used. Experimental equilibrium curves (binodal) and tie-line composition were determined for oil blends with 2, 20, and 40% of FFA at 308.2, 313.2, and 318.2 K. Three empirical equations were used to correlate binodal data. The parameters of the equation with the best fit were used along with the phase separation data, which were obtained by gravimetric method, for the construction of the tie lines. The consistency of experimental tie-line data was checked by using the Othmer–Tobias and Bancroft equations. Neutral lipids distribution coefficient and FFA distribution coefficient, as well as the selectivity of hydrous ethanol, were calculated for all systems.

OPTIMIZATION OF THE EXTRACTION OF FREE FATTY ACIDS APPLIED TO BIODIESEL PRODUCTION

Abstract The liquid-liquid extraction of free fatty acids (FFA) from residual oils and fats for biodiesel production, employing methanol as the solvent, has been optimized using process simulation and response surface methodology. The parameters investigated were temperature, number of stages and solvent-to-feed ratio (S/F). Responses evaluated were FFA mass fraction in the oil-rich phase (wFFAB) and total cost, using yellow and brown greases as the raw materials. Quadratic and linear models were fitted for wFFAB and cost responses, respectively. The optimal conditions satisfying technical (wFFAB ≤ 0.5%) and economic (minimum cost, including capital and operation costs, except for raw material cost) criteria were 321 K, 6 stages, S/F = 1.27, wFFAB = 0.41%, cost = $84.93/ton (yellow grease), and 318 K, 6 stages, S/F = 1.32, wFFAB = 0.49%, cost = $102.89/ton (brown grease).

Analysis of fatty acid profiles of free fatty acids generated in deep-frying process.

During the deep fat food frying process, the frying media, oil, continuously degenerates when exposed to high temperature, oxygen and moisture. This leads to physical and chemical changes including the formation of hydrolysis products such as free fatty acids (FFAs) which are associated with undesirable darkening in colour, off-flavouring and a lowering of the smoke point. This study was aiming to develop a method capable of identifying and quantifying individual free fatty acids within oil using a small sample size (100mg of oil). We used liquid/liquid extraction technique to separate FFAs from the rest of the oil followed by esterification using boron trifluoride (BF3) and then gas chromatography analysis. Various extraction conditions were tested. A mixture of 0.02M phosphate buffer at pH 12 and acetonitrile at solvent: buffer ratio larger than 2:1 showed the highest efficiency in extraction of FFAs. The method was capable of producing accurate fatty acid profiles of FFAs and showed good precision on medium rancidity oil samples. It also captured the differences induced by adding free fatty acids to samples. An interesting discrepancy was found between the new method and the traditional titration method in terms of overall FFA content, which suggests further optimisation and investigation are required.