Fountain Codes Research Articles

Improved PEG-Based Construction of Analog Fountain Codes.

This paper proposes an improved progressive edge-growth (PEG) construction of analog fountain codes (AFCs). During edge selection, it simultaneously allocates weight coefficients in descending order. Analysis shows that our proposed construction reduces the probability of large weight coefficients involved in harmful short cycles. Simulation results indicate that it has good block error rate (BLER) in short block length regime.

Optimizing fountain codes for DNA data storage

Fountain codes, originally developed for reliable multicasting in communication networks, are effectively applied in various data transmission and storage systems. Their recent use in DNA data storage systems has unique challenges, since the DNA storage channel deviates from the traditional Gaussian white noise erasure model considered in communication networks and has several restrictions as well as special properties. Thus, optimizing fountain codes to address these challenges promises to improve their overall usability in DNA data storage systems. In this article, we present several methods for optimizing fountain codes for DNA data storage. Apart from generally applicable optimizations for fountain codes, we propose optimization algorithms to create tailored distribution functions of fountain codes, which is novel in the context of DNA data storage. We evaluate the proposed methods in terms of various metrics related to the DNA storage channel. Our evaluation shows that optimizing fountain codes for DNA data storage can significantly enhance the reliability and capacity of DNA data storage systems. The developed methods represent a step forward in harnessing the full potential of fountain codes for DNA-based data storage applications.The new coding schemes and all developed methods are available under a free and open-source software license.

Expanding-Window Zigzag Decodable Fountain Codes for Scalable Multimedia Transmission

In this article, we present a coding method called expanding-window zigzag decodable fountain code with unequal error protection property (EWF-ZD UEP code) to achieve scalable multimedia transmission. The key idea of the EWF-ZD UEP code is to utilize bit-shift operation and expanding-window strategy to improve the decoding performance of the high-priority data without performance deterioration of the low-priority data. To provide more protection for the high-priority data, we precode the different importance level using LDPC codes of varying code rates. The generalized variable nodes of different importance levels are further grouped into several windows. Each window is associated with a selection probability and a bit-shift distribution. The combination of bit-shift and symbol exclusive-or operations is used to generate an encoded symbol. Theoretical and simulation results on input symbols of two importance levels reveal that the proposed EWF-ZD UEP code exhibits UEP property. With a small bit shift, the decoding delay for recovering high-priority input symbols is decreased without degrading the decoding performance of the low-priority input symbols. Moreover, according to the simulation results on scalable video coding, our scheme provides better basic video quality at a lower proportion of received symbols compared to three state-of-art UEP fountain codes.

Partitioned Analog Fountain Codes for Short Packet Communications

Partitioned Analog Fountain Codes for Short Packet Communications

Raptor Codes with LT-LDPC Precoding Performance Analysis and FPGA Optimization

Raptor codes are designed to effectively handle packet loss and erasures as a type of fountain code, capable of generating an unlimited number of encoded symbols from source informations, which is particularly useful in scenarios where the number of transmissions is unknown or variable. Luby Transform (LT) codes, a kind of fountain code encoding method, exhibit linear complexity, and Low-Density Parity-Check (LDPC) codes can be constructed by the generator matrix and the parity-check matrix. The LT-LDPC pre-coding method combines the advantages of both, enhancing encoding and decoding efficiency. Deploying code on Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) involves several steps: synthesis, place and route, and bitstream generation, followed by loading the bitstream onto the FPGA to configure its internal logic according to the coding methods. This paper introduces a method of encoding and decoding Raptor codes, utilizing the intimal LT codes and the peripheral LDPC codes constructed by PEG. It employs a lop-BP decoding method over noise channels based on the Tanner graph for decoding and deploys the optimized algorithm on FPGA to enhance performance.

An Underwater Source Location Privacy Protection Scheme Based on Game Theory in a Multi-Attacker Cooperation Scenario.

Ensuring source location privacy is crucial for the security of underwater acoustic sensor networks amid the growing use of marine environmental monitoring. However, the traditional source location privacy scheme overlooks multi-attacker cooperation strategies and also has the problem of high communication overhead. This paper addresses the aforementioned limitations by proposing an underwater source location privacy protection scheme based on game theory under the scenario of multiple cooperating attackers (SLP-MACGT). First, a transformation method of a virtual coordinate system is proposed to conceal the real position of nodes to a certain extent. Second, through using the relay node selection strategy, the diversity of transmission paths is increased, passive attacks by adversaries are resisted, and the privacy of source nodes is protected. Additionally, a secure data transmission technique utilizing fountain codes is employed to resist active attacks by adversaries, ensuring data integrity and enhancing data transmission stability. Finally, Nash equilibrium could be achieved after the multi-round evolutionary game theory of source node and multiple attackers adopting their respective strategies. Simulation experiments and performance evaluation verify the effectiveness and reliability of SLP-MACGT regarding aspects of the packet forwarding success rate, security time, delay and energy consumption: the packet delivery rate average increases by 30%, security time is extended by at least 85%, and the delay is reduced by at least 90% compared with SSLP, PP-LSPP, and MRGSLP.

Data recovery methods for DNA storage based on fountain codes

Today's digital data storage systems typically offer advanced data recovery solutions to address the problem of catastrophic data loss, such as software-based disk sector analysis or physical-level data retrieval methods for conventional hard disk drives. However, DNA-based data storage currently relies solely on the inherent error correction properties of the methods used to encode digital data into strands of DNA. Any error that cannot be corrected utilizing the redundancy added by DNA encoding methods results in permanent data loss. To provide data recovery for DNA storage systems, we present a method to automatically reconstruct corrupted or missing data stored in DNA using fountain codes. Our method exploits the relationships between packets encoded with fountain codes to identify and rectify corrupted or lost data. Furthermore, we present file type-specific and content-based data recovery methods for three file types, illustrating how a fusion of fountain encoding-specific redundancy and knowledge about the data can effectively recover information in a corrupted DNA storage system, both in an automatic and in a guided manual manner. To demonstrate our approach, we introduce DR4DNA, a software toolkit that contains all methods presented. We evaluate DR4DNA using both in-silico and in-vitro experiments.

Implementation of the Asymmetric Fountain Code Algorithm to Secure Aviation Licensing and Regulatory Document Data

Several agencies, both government and private, require the security of personal data, especially as this information can only be accessed or transmitted to authorized people or organizations. Likewise with license and regulatory records, these materials are exceedingly confidential. Documents pertaining to permissions and regulations issued by aviation authorities, such as operating permits and aircraft certification, However, the difficulty is that when data is distributed using an internet connection, it can slip into the hands of unscrupulous people. Implementation of the Asymmetric Fountain Code Algorithm to safeguard confidential text data is used to safeguard license and regulatory document data with encryption and description methods using the Fountain Code Algorithm, which has two keys to access plaintext and ciphertext documents using SharpDevelop 5.1 software in the C# language. This research reveals that the outputs of the Fountain Code algorithm can restore plaintext data in its entirety. So it can be inferred that the asymmetric Fountain Code algorithm meets good data integrity and is safe; the complexity of the algorithm is simpler; and the amount of plaintext is exactly related to time.

FCMPR:A multi-path secure transmission method based on link security assessment and fountain coding

The security of network data transmission has always been a focus of attention. With the rapid development of quantum computers and the rise of intelligent algorithms such as semantic analysis, traditional data encryption methods struggle to ensure the secure transmission of data. The avoidance routing protocol improves transmission security by circumventing malicious nodes and dangerous areas, but it misses the actual optimal path setup, reducing routing opportunities and increasing communication delays, thus failing to meet the application requirements that demand high security and low latency. To address these issues, this paper proposes a multi-path secure transmission method (FCMPR) based on link security assessment and fountain coding. We have designed a link security assessment method based on a random forest traffic detection model, which can obtain the link's confidence level to assess its security. Furthermore, we have proposed a secure multi-path routing transmission mechanism based on fountain code, enabling safe and rapid data transmission without avoiding malicious nodes. Experimental results show that even with a high proportion of malicious nodes in the network, FCMPR can significantly improve the data transmission rate, reduce the transmission delay, and enhance communication quality while ensuring data security.

Fountain Coded Coordinated Multipoint for 5G MBMS UAV Relay

Fountain Coded Coordinated Multipoint for 5G MBMS UAV Relay

Code-Division Space-Time Fountain Code for Plasma Sheath Communication

Code-Division Space-Time Fountain Code for Plasma Sheath Communication

Iterative Soft Decoding Algorithm for DNA Storage Using Quality Score and Redecoding.

Ever since deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was considered as a next-generation data-storage medium, lots of research efforts have been made to correct errors occurred during the synthesis, storage, and sequencing processes using error correcting codes (ECCs). Previous works on recovering the data from the sequenced DNA pool with errors have utilized hard decoding algorithms based on a majority decision rule. To improve the correction capability of ECCs and robustness of the DNA storage system, we propose a new iterative soft decoding algorithm, where soft information is obtained from FASTQ files and channel statistics. In particular, we propose a new formula for log-likelihood ratio (LLR) calculation using quality scores (Q-scores) and a redecoding method which may be suitable for the error correction and detection in the DNA sequencing area. Based on the widely adopted encoding scheme of the fountain code structure proposed by Erlich et al., we use three different sets of sequenced data to show consistency for the performance evaluation. The proposed soft decoding algorithm gives 2.3% ∼ 7.0% improvement of the reading number reduction compared to the state-of-the-art decoding method and it is shown that it can deal with erroneous sequenced oligo reads with insertion and deletion errors.

On the Security and Reliability Trade-off of the Satellite Terrestrial Networks with Fountain Codes and Friendly Jamming

The performance of the satellite-terrestrial network with Fountain codes (FCs) is conducted in the present work. More precisely, the air-to-ground link is modeled according to the shadow-Rician distribution to capture the strong light-of-sight (LOS) path as well as the impact of the shadowing. As a result, we employ the directional beamforming at both the satellite and relay to mitigate such an ultra-long transmission distance. We investigate the trade-off between the reliability and security aspects. Particularly, we derive the outage probability (OP) and intercept probability (IP) in the closed-form expressions. To further facilitate the security of the considered networks, the friendly jamming scheme is deployed as well. Finally, simulation results based on the Monte-Carlo method are given to corroborate the exactness of the developed mathematical framework and to identify key parameters such as antenna gain, and transmit power that have a big impact on the considered networks.

Analytical Techniques for Performance Evaluation of Fountain-Coded File Distribution in Packet Radio Networks

Convenient analytical techniques are developed for use in preliminary design of systems and protocols for the delivery of fountain-coded files from a source node to a destination node with the assistance of a relay node. Each node has a half-duplex packet radio, and the time-varying disturbance on each link is represented by a lumpable finite-state Markov chain. The analytical techniques include the use of first passage times and recurrence times in the derivation of an exact expression for the completion time of file transfer over a radio link and the application of results on Markov-correlated Bernoulli trials to obtain exact expressions for completion times of relay-aided file transfer in wireless networks. In the development of analytical techniques, we employ capacity-achieving channel codes and ideal fountain codes; however, we present simulation results for packet radios that employ practical channel codes and for which the fountain code is a standard systematic raptor code.

Satellite–Terrestrial Collaborative Object Detection via Task-Inspired Framework

Recently, buoyed by advances in the space industry, low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites have become an important part of the Internet of Things (IoT). LEO satellites have entered the era of a big data link with IoT, how to deal with the data from the satellite IoT is a problem worthy of consideration. Conventional object detection method in optical remote sensing simply transmits the raw data to the ground. However, it ignores the properties of the images and the connection with the downstream task. To obtain efficient data transmission and accurate object detection, we propose a task-inspired satellite-terrestrial collaborative object detection framework called STCOD. It detects regions of interest (ROIs) and adopts a block-based adaptive sampling method to compress the background (BG) in optical remote sensing images by introducing satellite edge computing (SEC) on satellites. The STCOD framework also sets the transmission priority of image blocks according to their contributions to the task and uses fountain code to ensure the reliable transmission of important image blocks. We build a whole software simulation framework to validate our method, including the satellite module, the transmission module, and the terrestrial module. Extensive experimental results show that the STCOD framework can reduce the amount of downlink data decreased by 50.04% while losing the detection accuracy by 0.54%. In our simulated satellite-terrestrial link, the STCOD framework can reduce the number of satellite-to-terrestrial transmissions by half. When the packet loss rate is between 5% and 20%, the detection accuracy is lost only 0.05% to 0.5%.

Efficient learning-driven data transmission algorithm for cloud-to-thing continuum

In the cloud-to-thing continuum paradigm, the efficient transmission of learning-driven data is critical for facilitating real-time decision-making and continuous learning processes. Fountain codes have gained popularity as Forward Error Correction (FEC) schemes in application layer networking due to their ability to recover lost data packets. Gaussian Elimination (GE) algorithms, which form the core of Fountain codes, can be optimized to improve transmission efficiency. We introduces techniques that leverage GE algorithms to enhance the transmission of learning-driven data within the cloud-to-thing continuum. A fast matrix element architecture is developed to improve computational speed. Additionally, a pipelined normalization component based on binary trees is introduced to enable parallel processing. A pipelined elimination component utilizing binary trees is also presented to further boost transmission speeds and efficiency. These techniques are implemented using Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) technology. Their performance is evaluated against existing methods, demonstrating significant gains in transmission efficiency. By effectively managing increasing Internet traffic loads and optimizing the flow of learning-driven data, these approaches facilitate more efficient communication between cloud-based AI systems and edge devices. Ultimately, this research supports enhanced real-time decision-making and continuous learning processes across the full cloud-to-thing continuum.

Analysis and Research on Secondary LT Coding Anti-Eavesdropping Scheme Based on LT Code Degree-1

Fountain code can significantly increase eavesdroppers’ untranslated efficiency in the wireless communication eavesdropping channel. The secondary LT coding anti-eavesdropping scheme with fountain code degree-1 is the subject of a theoretical investigation in this paper. The fact that its channel security capacity is greater than that of traditional LT code is first deduced from an information-theoretic standpoint, and the impact of source symbol length on decoding complexity and decoding overhead is then examined. The experimental results show that, compared with the traditional anti-eavesdropping twice fountain code, selecting long source symbols for double LT coding, when the main channel is better than the eavesdropping channel, can ensure that the eavesdropper has a higher untranslated efficiency, and can effectively reduce the fountain code decoding complexity and the number of encoded symbols sent by the source to improve the efficiency of information transmission.

Raptor-like Coded Broadcasting for Efficient V2X Communications

Broadcasting is a critical feature in V2X communication, allowing for the simultaneous dissemination of safety-critical messages to all nearby vehicles. However, the requirement for low latency in information dissemination and the need for reliable and efficient data transmission pose significant challenges to broadcasting in V2X communication systems. In this paper, we present a novel raptor-like coded broadcasting (RLCB) scheme for low-latency V2X communications. Firstly, we introduce feedback into a concatenated fountain code, and adjust its precoding and coding structure to achieve effective data deliverance under a limited number of retransmissions for low-latency transmission. Then, based on the raptor-like encoding and decoding structure, we propose a mutual exclusion-based network encoding (MENC) algorithm to enable retransmission in broadcasting scenarios. We also conduct a complexity analysis on the encoding and decoding process of our proposed scheme. Numerical results demonstrate the superior performance of our proposed scheme in reducing the packet error rate (PER) and improving spectral efficiency compared to the R10 code and hybrid automatic repeat request (HARQ) scheme.

Mobility-aware caching strategy in an SDN-based cooperative caching network

The upsurge of mobile multimedia traffic puts a heavy burden on the cellular network, and wireless caching has emerged as a powerful technique to overcome the backhaul bottleneck and alleviate the network burden. However, most previous works ignored user mobility, thus not reaping the caching gain from user mobility and having limited practical applications. In this paper, a mobility-aware caching strategy for the software-defined network (SDN)-based network is studied. Firstly, since typical mobile user (MU) has multiple opportunities to connect with the nearby MUs and Small-base stations (SBSs), the contact times between MUs as well as between MU and SBSs are derived as the Poisson distribution and Gamma distribution. Secondly, we propose a two-tier cooperative caching strategy, where SBSs cache the rateless Fountain code encoded video blocks probabilistically and nonrepeatedly while MUs just store the whole encoded video received last time. The corresponding four-stage transmission process is analyzed, where the key intermediate step is the derivation of the service and the failing probabilities of each transmission manner. Finally, we derive the successful offloading rate and average data offloading ratio (ADOR) as performance metrics. A system optimization problem based on ADOR is formulated, and two solutions are proposed, namely, derivative-based solution (DB-Solution) and long-tail distribution approximation (LTD-Approximation). Simulation results demonstrate that the effectiveness of LTD-Approximation is similar to the DB-Solution, and the proposed caching strategy can achieve quasi-optimal performance compared with other contrast schemes.

Design and Analysis of Systematic Batched Network Codes.

Systematic codes are of important practical interest for communications. Network coding, however, seems to conflict with systematic codes: although the source node can transmit message packets, network coding at the intermediate network nodes may significantly reduce the number of message packets received by the destination node. Is it possible to obtain the benefit of network coding while preserving some properties of the systematic codes? In this paper, we study the systematic design of batched network coding, which is a general network coding framework that includes random linear network coding as a special case. A batched network code has an outer code and an inner code, where the latter is formed by linear network coding. A systematic batched network code must take both the outer code and the inner code into consideration. Based on the outer code of a BATS code, which is a matrix-generalized fountain code, we propose a general systematic outer code construction that achieves a low encoding/decoding computation cost. To further reduce the number of random trials required to search a code with a close-to-optimal coding overhead, a triangular embedding approach is proposed for the construction of the systematic batches. We introduce new inner codes that provide protection for the systematic batches during transmission and show that it is possible to significantly increase the expected number of message packets in a received batch at the destination node, without harm to the expected rank of the batch transfer matrix generated by network coding.