Forward Error Correction Techniques Research Articles

Adjustable random linear network coding (ARLNC): a solution for data transmission in dynamic IoT computational environments

In mobile computing environments, most IoT devices connected to networks experience variable error rates and possess limited bandwidth. The conventional method of retransmitting lost information during transmission, commonly used in data transmission protocols, increases transmission delay and consumes excessive bandwidth. To overcome this issue, forward error correction techniques, e.g., Random Linear Network Coding (RLNC) can be used in data transmission. The primary challenge in RLNC-based methodologies is sustaining a consistent coding ratio during data transmission, leading to notable bandwidth usage and transmission delay in dynamic network conditions. Therefore, this study proposes a new block-based RLNC strategy known as Adjustable RLNC (ARLNC), which dynamically adjusts the coding ratio and transmission window during runtime based on the estimated network error rate calculated via receiver feedback. The calculations in this approach are performed using a Galois field with the order of 256. Furthermore, we assessed ARLNC's performance by subjecting it to various error models such as Gilbert Elliott, exponential, and constant rates and compared it with the standard RLNC. The results show that dynamically adjusting the coding ratio and transmission window size based on network conditions significantly enhances network throughput and reduces total transmission delay in most scenarios. In contrast to the conventional RLNC method employing a fixed coding ratio, the presented approach has demonstrated significant enhancements, resulting in a 73% decrease in transmission delay and a 4 times augmentation in throughput. However, in dynamic computational environments, ARLNC generally incurs higher computational costs than the standard RLNC but excels in high-performance networks.

Adaptive Learning Video Streaming with QoE in Multi-Home Heterogeneous Networks

In recent years, real-time video streaming has grown in popularity. The growing popularity of the Internet of Things (IoT) and other wireless heterogeneous networks mandates that network resources be carefully apportioned among versatile users in order to achieve the best Quality of Experience (QoE) and performance objectives. Most researchers focused on Forward Error Correction (FEC) techniques when attempting to strike a balance between QoE and performance. However, as network capacity increases, the performance degrades, impacting the live visual experience. Recently, Deep Learning (DL) algorithms have been successfully integrated with FEC to stream videos across multiple heterogeneous networks. But these algorithms need to be changed to make the experience better without sacrificing packet loss and delay time. To address the previous challenge, this paper proposes a novel intelligent algorithm that streams video in multi-home heterogeneous networks based on network-centric characteristics. The proposed framework contains modules such as Intelligent Content Extraction Module (ICEM), Channel Status Monitor (CSM), and Adaptive FEC (AFEC). This framework adopts the Cognitive Learning-based Scheduling (CLS) Module, which works on the deep Reinforced Gated Recurrent Networks (RGRN) principle and embeds them along with the FEC to achieve better performances. The complete framework was developed using the Objective Modular Network Testbed in C++ (OMNET++), Internet networking (INET), and Python 3.10, with Keras as the front end and Tensorflow 2.10 as the back end. With extensive experimentation, the proposed model outperforms the other existing intelligent models in terms of improving the QoE, minimizing the End-to-End Delay (EED), and maintaining the highest accuracy (98%) and a lower Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) value of 0.001.

Research progress on wireless sensor network (WSN) security technology

Abstract Wireless sensor network (WSN) has been a frontier technology field that integrates a variety of technologies and has a wide range of applications in the military. Network security is of great significance in military warfare. First, this paper outlines the technical advantages of the application of military based on the technical characteristics of WSN. In military applications, WSN has been used in modern military combat while WSN features easy and fast deployment, high concealment, good fault tolerance, high accuracy and other obvious advantages. Moreover, from the perspective of network security, this paper reviews the research progress of network security technology at the network level and data level. The network level includes security protocols, key management, and secure routing technology, and key management includes pre-shared key mode and random key pre-distribution mode. At the data level, error control and fault-tolerant algorithms are mainly included. Automatic retransmission and forward error correction techniques are traditional error control methods, which should be combined with the specific situation of WSN to propose the corresponding fault-tolerant mechanism. Finally, this paper summarizes the practical applications of WSN in the military. From battlefield reconnaissance and target localization monitoring to destruction effect control and anti-terrorism equipment research, network security has been a top priority. Against the background of practical military applications, this paper summarizes the research significance of network security technology.

Design of Robust Video Transmission System by Using Efficient Forward Error Correction Scheme

The advent of modern digital technologies has made multimedia communication systems one of the most demanding technologies of the time. The use of available bandwidth for efficient and errorless multimedia communication is the key challenge for the wireless communication research community. However, a wireless network has the disadvantage of being prone to random channel noise and data contamination. This paper proposes a robust video transmission framework by using an efficient forward error correction technique. In this work, the experimental performance of widely used forward error correction codes i.e., Convolution codes, LDPC codes, Turbo codes, and Concatenated codes, are compared based on their capability to compensate the channel noise and distortion. An efficient encoding scheme is devised for the transmission of YUV encoded frames by using the selected FEC codes in a noisy channel environment. The retrieved video is analysed by using the Peak Signal-to-Noise ratio and bit error rate as performance metrics. The results and cross comparison shows that concatenated codes have a handsome improvement in avoiding channel contamination and distortion.

A Survey on FEC Techniques for Industrial Wireless Communications

Industry 4.0 aims to digitize industrial processes entirely, and wireless technologies represent one of the enablers for scalable and flexible communications. However, the current standards and proprietary solutions do not meet the industry's tight requirements in fundamental use cases such as Factory Automation (FA). One of the key research challenges towards replacing wired fieldbuses with wireless links is the design of techniques that enable real-time and deterministic behavior when transmitting short packets. Forward Error Correction (FEC) techniques are critical to this objective, and coding/decoding algorithms must comply with reliability and low latency specifications. This paper surveys existing FEC techniques for short packet transmissions. Compared to other survey papers in the field, we propose several FEC candidate techniques specifically suitable for FA wireless systems. We explore four of these techniques, also examining hardware architecture proposals. The paper proposes a methodology to evaluate their latency and reliability performance. We finally discuss the lessons learned and challenges for future research.

Sliding-Window Forward Error Correction Based on Reference Order for Real-Time Video Streaming

In real-time video streaming, data packets are transported over the network from a transmitter to a receiver. The quality of the received video fluctuates as the network conditions change, and it can degrade substantially when there is considerable packet loss. Forward error correction (FEC) techniques can be used to recover lost packets by incorporating redundant data. Conventional FEC schemes do not work well when scalable video coding (SVC) is adopted. In this paper, we propose a novel FEC scheme that overcomes the drawbacks of these schemes by considering the reference picture structure of SVC and weighting the reference pictures more when FEC redundancy is applied. The experimental results show that the proposed FEC scheme outperforms conventional FEC schemes.

Optimized Polar Codes as Forward Error Correction Coding for Digital Video Broadcasting Systems

Polar codes are featured by their low encoding/decoding complexity for symmetric binary input-discrete memoryless channels. Recently, flexible generic Successive Cancellation List (SCL) decoders for polar codes were proposed to provide different throughput, latency, and decoding performances. In this paper, we propose to use polar codes with flexible fast-adaptive SCL decoders in Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) systems to meet the growing demand for more bitrates. In addition, they can provide more interactive services with less latency and more throughput. First, we start with the construction of polar codes and propose a new mathematical relation to get the optimized design point for the polar code. We prove that our optimized design point is too close to the one that achieves minimum Bit Error Rate (BER). Then, we compare the performance of polar and Low-Density Parity Check (LDPC) codes in terms of BER, encoder/decoder latencies, and throughput. The results show that both channel coding techniques have comparable BER. However, polar codes are superior to LDPC in terms of decoding latency, and system throughput. Finally, we present the possible performance enhancement of DVB systems in terms of decoding latency and complexity when using optimized polar codes as a Forward Error Correction (FEC) technique instead of Bose Chaudhuri Hocquenghem (BCH) and LDPC codes that are currently adopted in DVB standards.

A survey on belief propagation decoding of polar codes

The increasing data traffic rate of wireless communication systems forces the development of new technologies mandatory. Providing high data rate, extremely low latency and improvement on quality of service are the main subjects of next generation 5G wireless communication systems which will be in the people's life in the years of 2020. As the newest and first mathematically proven forward error correction code, polar code is one of the best candidates among error correction methods that can be employed for 5G wireless networks. The aim of this tutorial is to show that belief propagation decoding of polar codes can be a promising forward error correction technique in upcoming 5G frameworks. First, we survey the novel approaches to the belief propagation based decoding of polar codes and continue with the studies about the simplification of these decoders. Moreover, early detection and termination methods and concept of scheduling are going to be presented throughout themanuscript. Finally, polar construction algorithms, error types in belief propagation based decoders and hardware implementations are going to be mentioned. Overall, this tutorial proves that the BP based decoding of polar codes has a great potential to be a part of communication standards.

Error-free PAM-4 transmission by a high-speed plastic optical fiber without forward error correction.

This Letter reports, to the best of our knowledge, the first study in which error-free four-level pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM-4) transmission has been achieved using a graded-index plastic optical fiber (GI POF) without the use of forward error correction (FEC) techniques, at a high data rate (>50Gb/s), for short-reach applications (10 m). The GI POF that is developed has the characteristic microscopic heterogeneities in the fiber core material, which provide distinct mode coupling and significantly stabilize PAM-4 data transmission. The results of the study in this Letter indicate that the GI POF achieves highly stable PAM-4 transmission without the need for the current FEC techniques, which seriously increase the communication delay and power consumption of the transmission systems. Our GI POF material is paving the way for "material changes the system" approaches for achieving unprecedented optical interconnects in real time at a high speed and with low power consumption.

Experimental Characterization of Turbo-Coded 20 Gbps Fiber-Wireless-Fiber Optical Links

Fiber-wireless-Fiber links require alignment between the transmitter and receiver to a high degree of precision (typically ~ 0.01° for a link of a few meters), and channel coding can be used for mitigating the link margin reduction caused by the limited precision of the beam-steering and tracking system. This paper reports results from an experimental study of the misalignment tolerance attained by channel coding. Explicitly, the received power penalties imposed by misalignment are characterized, and then forward error correction techniques are adopted for mitigating the performance degradation inflicted, which is quantified experimentally. Our results characterize trade-offs between coding rate, decoding complexity and the degree of misalignment. Overall, an improvement of the tolerance to misalignment up to ~50% was attained for coded links compared with the uncoded counterpart.

Bit and Packet Error Rate evaluations for Half-Cycle stage cooperation on 6G wireless networks

The excellent features of the sixth generation (6G) of wireless technology enthuses researchers to apply advanced and complex techniques on mobile communication networks, which is what this paper explores. As a result of the ability of 6G to exchange vast data rates and network programming, the Cooperative Network Coding (CoNC) technique can be implemented to improve the connectivity and diversity within 6G applications.Though CoNC is usually implemented at the second stage, this paper proposes dividing the first stage into two Half-Cycle stages, and then applying CoNC at the second Half-Cycle stage. The resulting Bit Error Rate (BER) behaviour is investigated on the physical layer for direct data exchange in 6G local mobile networks over an Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) channel. Partial Unit Turbo Code (PUTC) (4,2,1,4) and (8,4,3,8) are used by each mobile node as the forward error correction technique, which means that each mobile acts as a Base Station (BS) for other mobiles in the local network by applying CoNC on the received packets, and then each mobile node (or BS), either Amplify-and-Forward (AF), or Decode-re-encode-amplify and Forward (DF), acts. When full connectivity is not achieved at the end of the first two Half-Cycle stages, new Half-Cycle stage transmissions follow, and the BER behaviour for all additional Half-Cycle stages is obtained. The results illustrate that applying CoNC at the second Half-Cycle stage of the first general stage produces a limited BER loss. To mitigate the damage in the BER, a soft-decision PUMTC decoder is also proposed.

Predictive autonomic transmission for low-cost low-margin metro optical networks

Low-cost low-margin implementation plays an essential role in upgrading optical metro networks required for future 5G ecosystem. In this regard, low-resolution analog-to-digital converters can be used in coherent optical transponders to reduce cost and power consumption. However, the resulting transmission systems become more sensitive to physical layer fluctuations like the events caused by fiber stressing. Such fluctuations might have a strong impact on the quality of transmission (QoT) of the signals. To guarantee robust operation, soft decision forward error correction (FEC) techniques are required to guarantee zero post-FEC bit error rate (BER) transmission, which could increase the power consumption of the receiver and thus operational expenses. In this paper, we aim at minimizing power consumption while keeping zero post-FEC errors by means of a predictive autonomic transmission agent (ATA) based on machine learning. We present a sophisticated ATA model that, taking advantage of real-time monitoring of state of polarization traces and the corresponding pre-FEC BER, predicts the right FEC configuration for short-term operation, thus requiring minimum power consumption. In addition, we propose a complementary long-term prediction of excessive pre-FEC BER to enable remote reconfiguration at the transmitter side through the network controller. A set of experimental measurements is used to train and validate the proposed ATA system. Exhaustive numerical analysis allows concluding that ATA based on artificial neural network predictors achieves the maximum QoT robustness with 80% power consumption reductions compared to static FEC configuration.

Performance of zero cross correlation resultant weight spectral amplitude codes in lower Earth orbit‐based optical wireless channel system

SummaryA consolidated performance investigation and design of newly constructed zero cross correlation resultant weight (ZCCRW) code is presented without mapping over optical wireless channel (OWC) in lower Earth orbit (LEO). Multiple access interference (MAI) is suppressed by incorporating proposed 1‐D code at 10 Gbps with an algorithm. A further state of the art comparison of diverse optical code division multiple access (OCDMA) codes such as multi diagonal codes and diagonal double weight codes is accomplished with proposed code in terms of root mean square (RMS) jitter, extinction ratio, MAI, quality factor (QF), and bit error rate (BER) at different linewidths, chip sizes, link lengths, and active users. It is perceived that for ZCCRW code, QF obtained is 16.5 for chip size (0.1 ns), and at 4000 km, BER 10‐9 is achieved using the forward error correction (FEC) technique. OWC system in LEO with lasers in spectral amplitude code (SAC) OCDMA is proposed for the first time as per the author's best knowledge.

Minimization of Network Induced Jitter Impact on FPGA-Based Control Systems for Power Electronics through Forward Error Correction

In modular distributed architectures, the adoption of a communication method that is at the same time robust and has a low and predictable latency is of utmost importance in order to support the required system dynamics. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the consequences of the random jitter on machine drives distributed control, caused by the messages’ re-transmission in case of an error in the received data. To achieve this goal, two different Forward Error Correction (FEC) techniques are introduced in the chosen protocol, so that the recipient of the message can correct random errors without the need of any additional round trip delays needed to request and obtain a re-transmission. Experimentally validated simulations are used to evaluate the impact of random network derived jitter on a real world closed loop control system for distributed power electronic converters.

Forward Error Correction For Gigabit Automotive Ethernet using RS(450,406) Encoder

Error correction and detection during data transmission is a major issue. For resolving this, many error correction techniques are available. The Reed-Solomon coding is the most powerful forward error correction technique used in Gigabit Automotive Ethernet to compact channel noise during data transmission. The car becomes more smarter day by day and more new advanced electronics is being used in-vehicle. Gigabit Automotive Ethernet(1000BASE-T1) provide fast bandwidth for many kinds of applications and connect different functional parts in the car. The Reed Solomon(RS) coding is the powerful forward error correction(FEC) technique used in 1000BASE-T1 Automotive Ethernet. RS(450,406) coding is also known as shortened Reed Solomon codes. The Reed Solomon(RS) codes are generally used in communication system due to its ability of correcting both random and burst errors. Reed Solomon codes are no-binary systematic linear block codes. RS coding is widely used in high speed communication system. This RS code is implemented using Galois field(GF). The Automotive Ethernet is encoded using RS(450,406) codes through GF(512) for FEC. This RS codes can corrects the error up to t=22 symbol, while other encoding techniques corrects the error in t bits. In this paper we implemented the RS(Reed Solomon) code in Cadence ncsim Verilog software and used Cadence Simvision for showing timing diagrams. This RS code uses 9-bit based shortened (450,406) code.

The End-to-End Performance of Rateless Codes in Poisson Bipolar and Cellular Networks

Rateless coding is a promising forward error correction technique to meet both delay and reliability requirements of emerging wireless applications. However, existing works on rateless codes mostly considered finite networks or ignored the traffic dynamics. In this paper, we present a comprehensive investigation of the end-to-end performance for rateless codes in Poisson bipolar and cellular networks. Specifically, we propose the notion of the end-to-end success probability , which is the success probability given an end-to-end delay requirement, to jointly evaluate the delay performance and transmission reliability of rateless codes. To fully characterize the end-to-end delay, we divide it into two parts, namely the packet waiting time and the transmission time, and provide tractable yet accurate approximations to their statistical distributions. Compared with the previous works, the proposed general framework and the end-to-end performance metric help obtain insights on the role of scheduling, queueing, and coding scheme in practical radio access networks. The approximations are verified to be effective and reliable through simulations. Overall, the results show the significant benefits of rateless codes relative to the fixed-rate codes in terms of the transmission reliability with an end-to-end delay requirement.

Error performance analysis and modeling of narrow-band PLC technology enabling smart metering systems

This paper presents an error performance analysis and a model of a narrow-band power line carrier (PLC) system for smart metering. Our work is founded on complex analysis based on the probability theory using limited, long-term measurement data of a rural 400 V distribution grid during operation. To obtain confident results, the analysis and modeling of the error performance were done in two steps. In the first step, the Neyman contagious distribution, originally derived in the fields of entomology and bacteriology, was applied to describe the probability distribution of errors in messages in consideration of the impulsive noise in the PLC channel and the influence of forward error correction techniques. In the second step, assuming the bit error rate (BER) was a random variable, where errors are randomly distributed in the sample rather than clustered into messages, the confidence interval of the true BER was calculated for different SNR values. The results served as a foundation for the error performance model proposed in this paper. The presented work is crucial for the research of upper layer communication protocols performance incorporating advanced phenomena at the physical layer.

Performances of the Decoding Algorithms near Shannon Limit

Forward error correction technique based on the optimization procedures for multithreshold decoding algorithms is considered. Recent advances as well as new opportunities of the multithreshold decoders for use in the systems working at the Shannon’s limit are analysed. Performances of the multithreshold decoders for self-orthogonal binary and non-binary codes over Gaussian channels are presented. Simulation results of BER performance of proposed decoder is shown to be close to the results provided by optimum total search methods.

Maximization of Underwater Sensor Networks Lifetime via Fountain Codes

The severe nature of underwater channel poses a great challenge for prolonging underwater acoustic sensor networks (UASNs) lifetime and achieving a reliable communication performance. Traditional approaches to improve the reliability such as automatic repeat request (ARQ) negatively affect the network lifetime (NL) due to energy dissipation caused by ARQ retransmission. A forward error correction (FEC) technique called fountain codes (FCs) can solve the energy efficiency problem of ARQ by transmitting both the original packet and some redundant packets to ensure a targeted reliability with few or no retransmissions. In this paper, we investigate performances of both traditional ARQ- and FC-based FEC methods in terms of NL, end-to-end delay, energy consumption, and frame error rate (FER) for UASNs. In this context, we abstract energy dissipation characteristics of conventional ARQ- and FC-based FEC method at the link-layer. We propose an integer linear programming (ILP) framework that maximizes the NL, which is operated on top of developed link-layer energy consumption models. Our results reveal that FC-based FEC methods can prolong the NL at a minimum of 16% while end-to-end delay, energy consumption, and FER can be reduced at least by 11%, 14%, and 9% as compared to classical ARQ, respectively.

Unequal loss protection scheme using a quality prediction model in a Wi-Fi broadcasting system

Wireless local area network–based broadcasting techniques are a type of mobile Internet Protocol television technology that simultaneously transmits multimedia content to local users. Contrary to the existing wireless local area network–based multimedia transmission systems, which transmit multimedia data to users using unicast packets, a wireless local area network–based broadcasting system is able to transmit multimedia data to many users in a single broadcast packet. Consequently, network resources do not increase with the increase in the number of users. However, IEEE 802.11 does not provide a packet loss recovery algorithm for broadcast packet loss, which is unavoidable. Therefore, the forward error correction technique is required to address the issue of broadcast packet loss. The broadcast packet loss rate of a wireless local area network–based broadcasting system that transmits compressed multimedia data is not proportional to the quality deterioration of the received video signals; therefore, it is difficult to predict the quality of the received video while also considering the effect of broadcast packet loss. In this scenario, allocating equal forward error correction packets to compressed frames is not an effective method for recovering broadcast packet loss. Thus, several studies on unequal loss protection have been conducted. This study proposes an effective, prediction-based unequal loss protection algorithm that can be applied to wireless local area network–based broadcasting systems. The proposed unequal loss protection algorithm adopts a novel approach by adding forward error correction packets to every transmission frame while considering frame loss. This algorithm was used as a new metric to predict video quality deterioration, and an unequal loss protection structure was designed, implemented, and verified. The effectiveness of the quality deterioration model and the validity of the unequal loss protection algorithm were demonstrated through experiments.