Fortress Wall Research Articles

최치원의 <西川羅城圖記> 연구

Along with <Boannamrok-idogi(補安南錄異圖記)>, Choi Chi-won's <Seocheon-naseongdogi(西川羅城圖記)>, is the oldest recording documents in existence and the only clue to examine the characteristics of the recording documents written during his stay in Tang Dynasty, and in this regard, a precise analysis for each of Choi Chi-won's works is required. Not only this, but the significance of <Seocheon-naseongdogi> is not small in that it can enhance the historical understanding of the Seocheon Naseong(西川羅城), which does not remain today. This paper started from the problematic awareness that despite the fact that <Seocheon-naseongdogi> hold an important position in literature as well as recording documents, its aesthetic value has not been fully explored. This paper clarifies the background of the construction of Seocheon Naseong and discusses deeply the narrative characteristics of <Seocheon-naseongdogi> that are differentiated from other fortress wall construction recording documents. Gobyeon(高騈, 821~887) built a larger fortress wall outside the old fortress to prevent Chengdu from the invasion of Namjo Kingdom, in the third year of the reign of Emperor Geonbu (876), the next year after his appointment as governor in military forces in Seocheon. When Gobyeon reported the completion of the construction of fortress by dedicating the <Seocheon-Naseongdo> depicting the image of fortress wall, Emperor Heejong of Tang Dynasty was very impressed and had Wanghui (王徽), an chief officer in Hallim Academy (818~891) write a writing commending his merits and engrave the words on the monument for his achievements. On the other hand, Choi Chi-won was the local governor in Yulsoo county, Seonjoo in the third year of the reign of Emperor Gyeonbu (876) and entered under the wing of Gobyeon in the first year of the reign of Emperor Gwangmyeong (880). So he was not under the command of Gobyeon at the time of the construction of Seocheon Naseong. In the third year of the reign of Emperor Chunghwa (883), Choi Chi-won read the <Seocheon-naseongdo> and wrote the inscription on his <Seocheon-Naseongdogi>, to record the historical site. The narrative characteristics of <Seocheon-naseongdogi> can be divided into the following three categories. The first is to focus on the description object, the second is to expand the scene by delaying the development of the narrative, and the third is to secure narrative completeness through detailed description. Through this, the narrative focuses on the event of 'Naseong Construction' and focuses on the process and outcome, but delays the pace of the narrative in the scene that he wants to emphasize and expresses it visually as if showing a video. In terms of the connection between the scenes, the probability of the incident was secured by mentioning the construction of the fortress in advance, and by presenting specific information such as proper names in the text through the self footnote without directly exposing them, it had both literary charm and the documentary qualities of the inscription. In addition, by describing in detail the process from the dedication of <Seocheon-naseongdo> to the erection of the monument, it enhanced the narrative completeness and performed the function of filling in the historical gaps. In short, <Seocheon-naseongdogi> focuses on the record of facts, but it also leaves room for it to be savored as a literary work.

충주 계족산 城址의 현황과 성격

This article presents an in-depth analysis of the recently revealed status of the Chungju Gyejoksan fortress site. This site is presumed to be an ancient Chungjuseong Fortress, where Chungju military officer, Kim, Yun-Hoo won in battle during the 1253 Goryeo Dynasty war against the Mongolian invasion. Gyejoksan fortress site encircles a valley formed between two peaks of Gyemyeongsan mountain (774.3 meters above sea level). The first peak (703 meters), is positioned to the south of the summit, while the second peak (709 meters), lies to the east of the first peak. The fortress wall is predominantly characterized by outer walls constructed using the Naetak technique, supplemented by sections of double walls. Noteworthy is the variance of the height of the walls, with the highest point being 709 meters and the lowest point 450 meters, exhibiting an elevation difference of approximately 259 meters. The fortress perimeter spans about 3km, demonstrating an adept utilization of environmental features such as cliffs and steep terrain in its construction. The walls, ranging in height from 2 to 4 meters, are constructed using irregular-shaped stones assembled with a rubble work technique and finished with wedge stones. Artifacts recovered from within the fortress site date primarily to the mid to late Goryeo Dynasty Period, including a significant quantity of rooftop tiles adorned with diverse patterns such as plain, fishbone, lattice, and compound designs. Gyejoksan fortress site shares similarities with several other fortresses, including Chenryongsanseong Fortress in Chungju, Samaksanseong Fortress in Chuncheon, Hangyesanseong Fortress in Inje, Gwongeumseong Fortress in Sokcho, Suinsanseong Fortress in Jangheung, Cheongnyangsanseong Fortress in Bonghwa, and Ipamsanseong Fortress in Jangseong. Given its strategic position as a backdrop mountain fortress to the Chungju town center, the Gyejoksan Fortress site is believed to possess significant historical and archaeological value. It is thought to have played a pivotal role in the Goryeo Dynasty's resistance against Mongol incursions, forming an interconnected defensive network with nearby mountain fortresses such as Namsanseong and Daerimsanseong.

강원지역 입보용 산악산성의 현황과 특징

‘Mountain’ means ‘high, rugged mountains.’ This mountainous terrain is one of the geographical features of the Gangwon region, and fortresses are located here and there in the mountains. In this paper, I would like to summarize the contents of fortresses in mountainous areas for entry among the mountain fortress data accumulated to date in the Gangwon region and briefly look at their characteristics. The fortress to be discussed in this paper will be examined with a focus on ruins for which archaeological investigation has been conducted at least once. The ruins are seven fortresses, including Gwongeumsanseong in Sokcho, Hangyesanseong in Inje, Dootasanseong in Donghae, Samaksanseong in Chuncheon, Yeongwonsanseong in Wonju, and JeongyangsanseongㆍTaehwasanseong in Yeongwol. The common characteristics of these fortresses are that they built walls using the rugged natural terrain (mountains) and used natural cliffs as walls to defend against invasion from the outside. The fortress wall surrounds the valley, making it easy to secure a water source, and is built in layers. Since the natural surface was used, the planar shape of the fortresses is not constant (irregular). In addition, the area of the mountain fortress is wide to maximize the living space inside, creating conditions for long-term staging. In addition, most of the mountain fortresses have historical facts related to the Khitan, Mongolia, etc., so they have something in common that shows national patriotism. Most of the artifacts excavated through archaeological investigations also correspond to this period. There is a study that shows that there is a lack of planning in the construction of mountain fortresses for entry in the Gangwon region. However, looking at the common characteristics of the fortresses mentioned above, it appears that there was sufficient planning. In addition, due to the rugged terrain, it is believed that it was only managed by the town police station in normal times, but when war broke out, it took on that role. From literature and archaeological investigations, it is believed that most mountain fortresses in the Gangwon region were built for the purpose of staging a sit-in. It can be said that the fortresses were built during the Goryeo Dynasty and operated until the Joseon Dynasty. However, the outer castle of Jeongyangsanseong in Yeongwol is different in that it was built with walls in addition to the inner wall built during the Three Kingdoms period and was operated until the Joseon Dynasty, but the characteristics of castles in other mountainous terrains in the Gangwon region are similar. For mountain fortresses in Korea, the English expressions “castle” and “fortress” are often used. In preparing this article, I believe that the large fortress wall located on the rugged mountainous terrain during the Goryeo Dynasty also had the meaning of “a shelter”.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE POPULATION OF SMOLENSK IN THE 16TH-17TH CENTURIES BASED ON THE MATERIALS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT PYATNITSKY DISTRICT

Introduction. The article analyzes materials dated to the 16th-17th centuries came from Smolensk. This period turned out to be one of the most complex and eventful in the history of the region, that's why every new detail is significant for the study. For a long time, Smolensk functioned as a boundary city and also as an important trade hub between the Muscovite Tsardom and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth; so, the composition of its population may reflect the influence of the western neighbors. Materials and methods. There were examined the craniological materials discovered during the excavations at the Pyatnitsky district of the city in 2012. The necropolis dates back to the turn of the 16th-17th centuries, it is located on the high bank of the Dnieper near the fortress wall of the Smolensk Kremlin. The materials include 17 male and 19 female skulls. Classical and multidimensional biometric methods were used as statistical approaches. Results. The comparison beetween the studied sample and the other sample of the 12th century city population known from the literature has showed their high similarity, although the later sample tends to be slenderer. Statistically significant differences were recorded only for certain parameters of the skull. The comparison with the aggregated sample of the rural Smolensk region population dated to the 18th-19th centuries also revealed a significant difference for the cranial length and height and some parameters of the facial skeleton. Discriminant analysis showed a quite unique status of the studied sample, which differs from both synchronous urban groups and later samples of the rural population of the central region. There are also no processes of macrosomization observed for it. Conclusion. The absence of significant differences for most characteristics between the studied sample and the urban population of the 12th century can indicate the continuity of the morphological type of the Smolensk urban population. On the other hand, the intermediate position of the studied sample in relation to early and late comparative materials can indicate that the studied sample represents recent settlers from the rural area.

Analysis of the purpose behind urban planning in accordance with the shifts in the centrality of Hanyang during the early Joseon dynasty

ABSTRACT During the Joseon Dynasty, the construction process of Hanyang (漢陽) underwent multiple cycles of suspension and resumption. While previous studies have often interpreted Hanyang as a city shaped by geographical specificity influenced by Confucianism and feng shui order, this study emphasizes how the initial urban plans diverged during the latter phases, highlighting how the trajectory of city planning evolved based on changing circumstances and conditions. This study employs an analytical approach to trace the evolution and adoption of the purpose behind the urban planning of Hanyang during the early Joseon Dynasty, focusing on the fact that facilities embodying the ideology and purpose of urban development are placed within the city center. Consequently, symbolic centers such as Gyeongbokgung Palace (景福宮), Jongmyo Shrine(宗廟), and Sajik Alter (社稷壇) were established following “Joorye (周禮),” “Gogonggi (考工記),” and feng shui order in Hanyang. However, geographical influences led to partial alterations in the plans, resulting in a curved and modified north-south axis. The development of Hanyang initially prioritized major internal facilities and roads; then it focused on the expansion of the city’s external territorial boundaries. This process, however, resulted in a lack of connection between the city center and its external boundaries. Subsequently, adjustments were made to the urban structure and connectivity by closing and relocating certain city gates. The construction of the Fortress Wall of Hanyang further fortified internal solidarity. The (former) Jongru Bell Tower was positioned at the center, surrounded by a market to enhance visual and spatial centrality. Following the reorganization of the road structures upon King Taejo’s reign, the Jongru Bell Tower’s location shifted to the intersection of the main arterial roads. This adjustment aimed to combine both mobile and spatial centrality. The Jongru Intersection, featuring a large pavilion, was constructed to reinforce its function as an intersection; citizens of Hanyang could thereby recognize this as its city center. The city center of Hanyang underwent transformations over different periods, considering its symbolism, geography, and transportation. In sum, Hanyang was initially constructed in adherence to feng shui and Confucian thought; then, urban development placed a focus on geographical centrality once the city territory was confirmed. Later, as roads were reorganized, centrality shifted towards crucial transportation points.

THE RIGHT-BANK TSIMLYANSK FORTRESS OF THE KHAZAR KAGANATE BASED ON THE 2006–2021 EXCAVATIONS

The right-bank Tsimlyansk settlement is a white-stone fortress doomed to destruction by the construction of the Tsimlyansk reservoir. The estimates of experts in bank transformation show that the fortress will disappear in the next 75 years, while the bank stabilization will take 200 years or longer. The paper presents the results of the 2006–2021 excavations along more than 56 m of the eastern fortress wall and in tower IV which were built from white limestone blocks laid on a base of shell rock and sandstone slabs. No wooden posts under the wall were found, as in the case of the southern corner of the fortress. The location of the tower corresponds to the 1743 plan by I. Satsyperov. Two options for its reconstruction are proposed. A unique feature of many blocks is the decoration in the shape of a straight and oblique grid. A number of building materials of Byzantine origin were found, including roof tiles and kalypters, as well as ceramic tiles. Another yurt dwelling (structure no. 50) typical for the fortress was uncovered. It is of fundamental importance that the dwelling adjoins the inner face of the fortress wall. Earlier, two more dwellings were found near the inner facade, but none has been found under the wall. This circumstance casts doubt on S.A. Pletneva’s hypothesis unsupported by M.I. Artamonov about the existence of an earlier settlement on the site of the fortress.

ON THE CONTROVERSIAL LOCALIZATION OF THE TSAKHAR FORTRESS IN THE PASCHAL FORTIFICATION

The issue of localization of one or another toponym known from narrative sources is often ambiguous and causes discussions in the scientific community. This article is devoted to the analysis introduced into scientific circulation by Yu.N. Voronov and the well-established identification of a famous monument on the left bank of the Kodor – the Pskal fortification with the Tzakhar fortress, described by Agafius of Mirineisky. The Pskal fortification is a temple surrounded by a fortress wall with a total area of 1100 m². The authors of the article carried out a detailed analysis of the geographical location of the fortification, made a full-scale inspection, created photogrammetric models of the landscape and the temple itself. The geographical location of the monument showed that the Pskalsky fortification was connected with the region of the left bank of the Kodor River, and not with the Tsebelda Valley and the Misimians, which Agathius of Mirineisky describes, and which were located on the right bank of this river. The absence of a description of the crossing over the river and the inconsistency of the fortification area described in the source regarding the Ttsakhar fortress allows us to say that the identification of the Pskal fortress with Ttsakhar is premature and extremely controversial. An analysis of the design features of the temple made it possible to find a number of analogies among other monuments of the region, including those studied archaeologically, thanks to which we can state: monuments of this type: small temples with a semicircular apse inscribed in a common rectangular outline, with two semicircular niches on both sides of the apse semicircle could not have been built later than the 12th century, but they are not monuments of the Tsebelda era either. They can be attributed to the era of the emergence of a single Abkhazian kingdom. Thus, the fortification on Mount Pskal is not the ancient Misimian fortress Ttsakhar from the era of late antiquity, but a monument of the medieval history of the Abkhazian kingdom, which still requires its detailed study.

ON THE CONTROVERSIAL LOCALIZATION OF THE TSAKHAR FORTRESS IN THE PASCHAL FORTIFICATION

The issue of localization of one or another toponym known from narrative sources is often ambiguous and causes discussions in the scientific community. This article is devoted to the analysis introduced into scientific circulation by Yu.N. Voronov and the well-established identification of a famous monument on the left bank of the Kodor – the Pskal fortification with the Tzakhar fortress, described by Agafius of Mirineisky. The Pskal fortification is a temple surrounded by a fortress wall with a total area of 1100 m². The authors of the article carried out a detailed analysis of the geographical location of the fortification, made a full-scale inspection, created photogrammetric models of the landscape and the temple itself. The geographical location of the monument showed that the Pskalsky fortification was connected with the region of the left bank of the Kodor River, and not with the Tsebelda Valley and the Misimians, which Agathius of Mirineisky describes, and which were located on the right bank of this river. The absence of a description of the crossing over the river and the inconsistency of the fortification area described in the source regarding the Ttsakhar fortress allows us to say that the identification of the Pskal fortress with Ttsakhar is premature and extremely controversial. An analysis of the design features of the temple made it possible to find a number of analogies among other monuments of the region, including those studied archaeologically, thanks to which we can state: monuments of this type: small temples with a semicircular apse inscribed in a common rectangular outline, with two semicircular niches on both sides of the apse semicircle could not have been built later than the 12th century, but they are not monuments of the Tsebelda era either. They can be attributed to the era of the emergence of a single Abkhazian kingdom. Thus, the fortification on Mount Pskal is not the ancient Misimian fortress Ttsakhar from the era of late antiquity, but a monument of the medieval history of the Abkhazian kingdom, which still requires its detailed study.

Рисунки-граффити Смоленской крепости: постановка вопроса

Introduction. The Smolensk fortress, which was created in 1596-1602, is a monument not only of military art, but also part of the cultural space of the city. For centuries, the inhabitants of the city and its defenders have left their graffiti on the fortress, some of these graffiti is characterized as quite archaic and finds analogies among the medieval graffiti of other cities. Previously, graffiti of the Smolensk Fortress were not studied, and all research was concentrated either on church frescoes or on graffiti of particular churches. The publication of graffiti of the Smolensk Fortress is happening for the first time.Materials and methods. The material for this study was 9 graffiti drawings located on lime blocks. They are made in the basement part of the wall at an accessible height of 45-100 cm, applied with a sharp object that leaves thin traces. The study of images was carried out by the method of micro-examination of graffiti.Results. The main features of graffiti are revealed: the location on the inside of the fortress and mainly in the furnaces (chambers of the lower battle) on white lime blocks. Among them there is an image of crosses, as well as people: warriors, a horseman, a woman. The theme of Smolensk graffiti correlates with the theme of wall paintings and graffiti in other cities of Russia and Belarus. It can be assumed that they were left by people from the middle and lower strata of the city, as well as the garrison of the fortress wall itself, which was closest to it.Conclusion. These graffiti are an additional source of information about the social and ethnic composition of the population of Smolensk, expand ideas about the folk culture of the XVII century.

나주읍성 동점문 성벽부재에 대한 암석학적 연구 및 산지 추정

This study is based on the mentorship course in CNU Science Education Institute For the Gifted. The Naju Eupseong Dongjeommun Gate, which was built in the Goryeo Dynasty, was restored in 2002, but a heterogeneous stone material that showed a significant difference from the original stone of the fortress wall, was used as the restoration stone. This study aims to clarify the difference between raw stones and restored stones by the investigation of the petrological features of the stone materials for the Naju Eupseong Dongjeommun Gate, and to estimate the provenances of the raw stones through the geologic survey. In addition, replacement stones that can be used for when the Naju Eupseong Dongdaemun Gate is renovated are presented. As a result of measured magnetic susceptibility and visual observation, the stone materials of the Naju Eupseong Dongjeommun Gate consist of granodiorite, and granite gneiss. Compared to the original stone, the restored stone is judged to be a granite, which shows a clear difference in the petrographical features such as the results of visual observation and the magnetic susceptibility. As a result of the geologic survey around Naju Eupseong Walled Town, the area of Geumseongsan Mountain in Naju is presumed to be the source of the original stones. Granite diorite is considered appropriate as a substitute stone if the restoration of Naju Eupseong Dongjeommun Gate is carried out.

Archeogeophysical Studies in Archaeological Heritage Studies: the Case of Konya, Alaeddin Hill

Konya Province, one of the provinces with the largest surface area in Turkey, is located in the Central Anatolia Region, between 37°52' north latitude and 32°30' east longitude. Alaeddin Hill is located in the city center of Konya. The hill surrounding which is a mound has been exposed to intense construction and traffic. This structure, which is not a natural hill and has survived from ancient times, forms the historical core of Konya. Alaeddin Hill Mound; It is an archaeological settlement that yields finds dating back to the Bronze Age (4500-2000 BC). The mound is the inner castle settlement of the Anatolian Seljuk State and is one of the important natural and archaeological sites today. The mound contains all the settlement levels from the past to the present, from the Bronze Age to the end of the Ottoman Period. Important findings were unearthed during the archaeological excavations carried out in 1941 on the Alaeddin Hill Mound. Alaeddin Hill Natural and Archaeological Site, Alaeddin Mosque, Yarım Kümbet (Half Cupola), 2nd Kılıçarslan Tomb and Mansion constitute the inner castle of Medieval Konya. During the Seljuk conquest, the province of Konya was a small city within the walls surrounding the present Alaeddin Hill Mound. The 2nd Kılıçarslan Mansion Rescue Excavation was carried out in 2010. As a result of the archaeological excavations, the wall surrounding the ruins of the Palace extending in the east-west direction was unearthed to the west of the mansion. During the archaeological excavations, it was determined that the 2nd Kılıçarslan Mansion was not an independent structure on its own. It forms a unity with the walls extending to the east and west of the Alaeddin Mansion and the walls that cut these walls vertically to the south. Therefore, it suggests that this building complex is the remains of the Seljuk Palace. According to new findings and information found during archaeological excavations, Alaeddin Hill was built during the reign of Alaeddin II. Archaeological and geophysical studies have begun to fully uncover the wall surrounding the ruins of the palace located to the east of the Kilicharslan pavilion, the condition of the western facade of the pavilion, so that one can see the continuation of the remains of the inner fortress wall that runs east in front of the pavilion, to explain the integrity of the pavilion and the Seljuk Palace. With the integrated interpretation of magnetic (M) and geoelectric (ERT) methods from archaeogeophysical studies, anomalies belonging to the inner city wall remains, giving regular geometric forms, were visualized in two and three dimensions.

ОРТАҒАСЫРЛЫҚ СЫҒАНАҚТЫҢ ШЫҒЫС ҚАҚПАСЫ: ҚҰРЫЛЫМЫЖӘНЕ ЕРЕКШЕЛІКТЕРІ

The article summarizes the data of written sources about the medieval city of Syganak and the stages of the city's life. From the writings of medieval historians, travelers' reports, it is known about the location of the city and the political role of the city in the historical arena.Toclarify the information of written sources in the second half of the 19th century,Russian scientists visited there and specified the location of the city.In the 70s of the 20th century, members of the Otyrar archaeological expedition studied the topography of the city and marked its boundaries. For the first time, complex excavations at the settlement were carried out in 2003 by archaeologists of the International Kazakh-Turkish University named after Khoja Ahmed Yasawi.According to scientists, the results of the excavations and the recovered material confirm the information from written sources about the stages of the life of the city. The article highlights and describes the features of the construction technology of the eastern gate and the fortress wall, as well as an analysis of the building material. A comparative analysis of the gates of other medieval cities in the region was also carried out and preliminary scientific conclusions were made. Based on the artifacts obtained during the excavations, the authors proposed the dating of the eastern gate and the fortress wall. The article analyzes the excavation plans, and summarizes the results of the excavation of the eastern gate.

UNKNOWN SEAL OF EMPEROR JUSTIN I (518-527) FROM SERDICA

The paper examines a seal of Emperor Justin I (518-527). It has the following description:
 Obverse: Beardless bust with a nimbus of Emperor Justin I, opposite, with a helmet and chlamys. Around the image an inscription in clockwise direction:
 N IVSТI NVSPPAVG = D(ominus) n(oster Justinus p(er)petus Aug(ustus)
 Reverse: Victoria standing across with a wreath in each hand, in the bottom left field a small So far there is not known bulla of this ruler from Bulgaria and because of that some questions arise when identifying the specimen from Serdica. The inscription on the newly discovered seal showed that the bulla belonged to Justin, but it is not clear if it is Justin I (518-527) or Justin II (565-578). The image on the obverse differs from the known images of Justin I and Justin II. It is smaller and occupies part of the nucleus, while in the published so far the size of the bullotirium is larger than the nucleus itself. The inscription of the copy from Serdica is clearly legible, but the letters and the image are small, which distinguishes this seal from the known so far. The difference is obvious also in the reverse, in which Victoria does not follow the model of the image from the molybdenums of Justinian I and Justin II, but her image is close to that of the seals of Anastasius I, and even could be said that it completely copies it. The characteristics of the seal, its inscription and images are different from the ones of the copies of Justin II, which is a serious reason to attribute it to the time of Emperor Justin I, which makes it currently unique of this type.
 Other evidence of life in Serdica from the time of Emperor Justin I (518 - 527) are the coins discovered. In Serdica the most numerous are the coins of 40 nummi, followed by those of 20 nummi, which are almost two times less than the large denomination. The number of the specimens of 10 and 5 nummi is equal, but is less than the number of the large denominations. As mints, the coins from Constantinople predominated, followed by coins from Nicomedia, Antioch and Cyzicus. Among the regular coins were found two imitations of folles of Justin I, which imitate the production of the mint of Constantinople from this period. These coins, found together with the official ones used in the Byzantine state, show that they were accepted by the financial authorities as a regular payment tool. Two gold coins of Justin I are discovered in Serdica I - a solidus found at the eastern fortress wall and a tremis from the excavations at the northeastern tower. 
 The new seal of Emperor Justin I presented in the article and the coins discovered by this ruler in Serdica show the significant role of the city during this period.

Fortress in the village of Achabet in the Republic of South Ossetia According to Written Sources and Historiographic Data

The fortress in the village of Achabet is known from a number of written sources of the early 15th and 18th centuries. Despite this circumstance, in the scientific tradition it is contradictory to believe that the first information about the fortress contained in written sources refers to the events of the middle of the 16th century, and the lower limit of several periods of its construction is correlated by researchers with the same time. The presence of a contradiction between the information about the fortress contained in written sources and the presentation of this information in the scientific tradition determined the relevance of this study. The aim of the study, therefore, was to resolve this contradiction by analyzing and comparing the known information from written sources about this monument with information about it contained in the historical and linguistic literature, as well as with descriptions of the monument presented in the literature on the history of fortifications of the Transcaucasia. This comparison, in turn, made it possible to present a possible chronology of the construction of a number of objects that made up the complex of the monument over several periods of its construction. According to the results of the study, it is assumed that the tower and the adjacent semicircle of the first fortress wall were erected at the turn of the 13th–14th centuries, the second fortress wall was built along the first in the second half of the 15th century, and the third wall, the largest in terms of area covered, was erected in the 30-s of the 18th century. The materials for the study were written sources, as well as information about field examinations of the monument, available in the scientific tradition. The research was carried out on the basis of the method of comparative historical analysis.

Defensive Walls of Tobolsk Kremlin: a Historical and Architectural Sketch

The article was prepared in connection with the announcement of the year of Semyon Ulyanovich Remezov in the city of Tobolsk in 2021. Information has been collected on the history of the construction and rebuilding of the fortress walls and towers of the Tobolsk Kremlin, which rarely attracted the attention of researchers. A review of the history of the fence construction in the Sofia courtyard is carried out. Particular attention is paid to the stages of the construction of the Kremlin stone walls, the surviving elements of defensive architecture in them. The authors clarify some provisions from the classical works of V. I. Kochedamov, draw on new sources, including photographs from restoration work in the middle of the 20th century from the funds of the Tobolsk Historical and Architectural Museum-Reserve. The results of a comparative architectural analysis of the Kremlin walls of Tobolsk with synchronous and previous monuments of Russian military architecture are presented in the article. It has been established that the walls of the Tobolsk Kremlin were more of a symbolic-decorative than a military char-acter. It was determined that they represented a symbiosis of the Moscow Kremlin architecture of the late 15th century with the architecture of the Smolensk fortress wall, 17th century monastery fences and, possibly, the fence of the Bishops' court in Rostov.

Relationship between Phase and Chemical Compositions and the Durability of Ceramic Material over 800 Years in Age from the Fortress Wall of Girona (Spain)

Relationship between Phase and Chemical Compositions and the Durability of Ceramic Material over 800 Years in Age from the Fortress Wall of Girona (Spain)

Structural stability and microscale behaviors of the fortress wall from the sixth century Baekje Kingdom in ancient Korea

The Gongsanseong Fortress in Gongju, Republic of Korea, is one of the most essential remains for historical research of Baekje Kingdom, and reinforces on the fortress wall has continuously been implemented since the sixth century to present. Through visual inspections of the fortress ramparts, sections in which structural deformations have occurred, and then they were classified by morphological characteristics based on lithofacies that compose the ramparts, shape of each rock, and construction method. Also, automatic sensors that can measure behavior changes of the ramparts, and the surrounding environment were installed to monitor microscale movements of the ramparts and changes in the surrounding microclimate. As a result, damages were shown intensively on the ramparts that retain specific morphological characteristics, and it has been discovered that, even for the ramparts located in an identical environment, morphological characteristics affect damages and structural deformations of the ramparts because of behavior changes for minutes. Such changes in behavior can be classified based on reversibility and predictability, and different management schemes must be applied based on behavior change patterns. If we continuously operate and develop this monitoring system, it is expected to be meaningfully utilized in efficient maintenance of the cultural heritage of the ramparts.

A restoration study on the fortress wall of Balhae Sanggyeongseong estimated from the castle remaining of the Korean Peninsula

A restoration study on the fortress wall of Balhae Sanggyeongseong estimated from the castle remaining of the Korean Peninsula

Investigation of the Porosity Structure in the Ceramic Wall Material of the Fortress in Girona (Spain)

The object of investigation is the ceramic material taken from the fortress wall in the city of Girona. The chemical composition of the researched material showed a heightened content of carbon (13.1%) in it, attesting the introduction of fuel into the green body. The heightened content of fuel in the green body promotes porosity formation and uniform sintering inside the ceramic sample. The integral and differential programs of the research samples, which were obtained by means of mercury porosimetry, showed that the total volume of the micropores ranging in size from 10 – 4 to 10 – 8 m is equal to 0.155 cm3/g. The differential distribution of micropores as a function of their size is: 10 – 4 – 10– 5 — 27% (reserve – non-hazardous); 10 – 5 – 10– 6m— 19% (hazardous); 10 – 6 – 10– 7 m — 29%; 10 – 7 – 10– 8 m — 25% (non-hazardous).

The relationship of phase and chemical compositions of a durable ceramic material of the fortification wall of the city of Thessaloniki (Greece) age more than 1000 years

A ceramic material with an age of more than 1000 years has been studied. Plinth was used as a ceramic material for the construction of the fortress wall. In addition, the element analysis determined an increased content of carbon in the samples - 9,50 %. Increased carbon content in inclusions indicates the introduction of fuel into the raw material. The introduction of fuel into the raw material not only increases the porosity of the products, but also contributes to the uniform sintering of the ceramic shard and with an increased content of alkali oxides (R2O > 4 %), the formation of a glass phase up to 1000 oC.