Fortified Structures Research Articles

New insights into complex social organization in the southern Caucasus – Late Bronze Age–Early Iron Age settlement patterns in the Shiraki Plain (southeast Georgia)

Abstract. Due to its location between Mesopotamia and the Eurasian steppes, the southern Caucasus occupies a distinctive place in Old World archeology. While several local areas in the South Caucasus have shown a complex social organization with fortified structures during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age (LBA–EIA), the Shiraki Plain (southeast Georgia), despite its immense potential, has yet to be examined in a regional context. The presented research aims to conduct an initial multi-stage landscape archeological survey over the Shiraki Plain in order to reveal the LBA–EIA fortified settlements of previously identified Didnauri and Nazarlebi types. The authors use remote sensing, photogrammetry, and terrestrial survey methods to investigate selected areas. The results demonstrate the density and complexity of the massive, fortified structures spread over both the plain and neighboring ridges. Their spatial distribution suggests the idea of a well-organized defensive system adapted to the landscape, which in turn is discussed in a broader regional context.

Fire Endurance of Spherical Concrete Domes Exposed to Standard Fire

Fire is considered a common hazard for civil structures. Public and administrative buildings are commonly designed by considering the standard fire rating and, in many cases, contain large compartments with central domes, in which fire growth can be significant. Moreover, tanks and underground fortified structures may be constructed as domes to support the heavy soil above. This paper numerically addressed such a case. First, an axisymmetric finite element model was developed and validated to predict the dome’s transient, thermal, structural, and thermal-structural behavior. Next, the model was used to conduct a parametric study to investigate the effects of the dome ring reinforcement, thickness, stiffness, central angle, base restraints, load type (external pressure or gravitational), and load ratio on the fire endurance of the dome. Design recommendations to increase the fire endurance of concrete domes were formulated based on the parametric study.

Мethodical approach to the calculation of field fortification structure for the action of penetrating radiation

The purpose of the article is to publicize a methodical approach to the calculation of field fortification structures for the action of penetrating radiation. The experience of the Russian-Ukrainian war testifies to the aggravation of potential nuclear threats from the Russian Federation, in the case of which, in the event of their implementation, ensuring the survivability of our troops due to the radiation factor during hostilities will be significantly complicated. This development of events requires the Defense Forces of Ukraine to be constantly ready for action in the event of the enemy's use of nuclear weapons, and to strengthen the capabilities of the troops to protect against the impact factors of a nuclear explosion.The most effective way to protect troops in the conditions of the use of nuclear weapons is their shelter in field fortifications, the construction and covering of which will prevent or maximally reduce the impact of the impact factors of a nuclear explosion, in particular, penetrating radiation.The essence of the proposed methodological approach consists in the consistent determination of the dose of gamma radiation and neutrons inside the field fortification structure, taking into account a number of indicators, which will allow us to draw a conclusion about the compliance of the coating and construction of this fortification structure with the existing requirements for the protection of troops.The scientific novelty of the given methodical approach to the calculation of field fortification structures for the action of penetrating radiation consists in the comprehensive consideration of indicators that quantitatively characterize the main characteristics of a nuclear explosion, the conditions of the environment and the properties of various covering materials and the construction of field fortification structures.

Correction to: An overview of some traditional materials used in linear fortification structures in coastal regions of China: implications for their analytical study and conservation

Correction to: An overview of some traditional materials used in linear fortification structures in coastal regions of China: implications for their analytical study and conservation

An overview of some traditional materials used in linear fortification structures in coastal regions of China: implications for their analytical study and conservation

An overview of some traditional materials used in linear fortification structures in coastal regions of China: implications for their analytical study and conservation

Space monitoring of violation of the ecosystem condition of the Black Sea biosphere reserve as a result of military actions

This work is devoted to the study of the impact of military actions on the environment of Ukraine based on the materials of remote sensing of the Earth. The authors proposed a methodology for determining the scale of fires and the degree of damage to nature conservation objects using the example of the Black Sea Biosphere Reserve. In particular, fires are identified with the help of the FIRMS service, which subsequently allows establishing the causes of their occurrence and predicting their direction of spread, as well as estimating the affected areas. The paper presents the results of satellite monitoring of the determination of thermal anomaly centers, their dynamics and extent of damage; a study of the areas flooded due to the lowering of the reservoir is presented; an approach to comprehensive monitoring of the disturbance of the state of ecosystems of nature-protected territories of Ukraine is proposed. The research was conducted in the period from February 2022 to February 2023. Temperature activity was determined in the Black Sea Biosphere Reserve and its adjacent territories, and areas of disturbance of the surface layer of the soil as a result of military operations were identified. The facts of fires, the presence of enemy military equipment, the construction of various fortification structures (trenches, trenches, shelters for equipment), the presence of firing positions, the location and movement of automobiles and other large vehicles have been proven. The proposed research can be used to monitor and document environmental crimes caused by military actions. The obtained results provide information to state authorities for decision-making regarding the preservation and restoration of valuable natural reserves and objects, and also allows forecasting changes in environmental risk due to military actions.

Digital Recording of Historical Defensive Structures in Mountainous Areas Using Drones: Considerations and Comparisons

Digital recording of historic buildings and sites in mountainous areas could be challenging. The paper considers and discusses the case of historical defensive structures in the Italian Alps, designed and built to be not accessible. Drone images and photogrammetric techniques for 3D modeling play a fundamental role in the digital documentation of fortified constructions with non-contact techniques. This manuscript describes the use of drones for reconstructing the external surfaces of some fortified structures using traditional photogrammetric/SfM solutions and novel methods based on NeRFs. The case of direct orientation based on PPK and traditional GCPs placed on the ground is also discussed, considering the difficulties in placing and measuring control points in such environments.

High strength steel fiber reinforced concrete for fortification protected structures

The article presents the results of research on modified steel fiber-reinforced concrete and shows the expediency of their use to increase the effectiveness of fortification protection structures against shock loads. It was established that according to the results of tests of compressive strength (fсm = 79.4 MPa) and tensile strength during bending (fс, lf = 7.4 MPa), steel fiber-reinforced concrete can be classified as high-strength (strength class C 50/60) and rapid-hardening (fcm2/ fcm28 = 0.57) in accordance with DSTU EN 206:2018. Manufacturing in factory conditions of reinforced concrete elements of structures based on high-strength steel fiber-reinforced concrete with increased resistance to various types of force effects during shelling will allow to obtain quick-assembling/quick-dismantling fortification structures that will be able to provide protection for the personnel of the units of the armed forces of Ukraine.

Prospects of the use of high-tension fiber concrete as the basis for the formation of protective shelters and fortification structures during the russian-ukrainian war

This article analyzes the current state of protective shelters and fortification structures, foresees the modern possibilities of using fastening and basalt-type structures to increase the stability of concrete fortifications both during the construction of buildings for the protection of the civilian population, and for the creation of dugouts, fortifications and fire structures for the protection of personnel in accordance.
 Studies of the physical and mechanical properties of fiber concrete modified with plasticizers and active mineral additives using basalt and polypropylene fibers have shown that their introduction has a positive effect on the strength characteristics of concrete. The compressive strength of fiber concrete at day 28 increases from 61.4 to 77.0 and 96.2 MPa, respectively, and the flexural strength from 7.4 to 12.7 and 13.8 MPa, respectively.
 For the production of reinforced concrete protective materials, it is more effective to create hybrid high-strength concrete using fibers of different nature, followed by the formation of a reinforced concrete slab of the appropriate size. At the same time, the standard provides for the manufacture of prefabricated reinforced concrete elements of fortification structures and platoon support points of wall panels of the SP-1, SP-2 type and floor slabs PP-1 with a thickness of at least 300 mm from heavy concrete of strength class C32/40 with the use of plasticizers and active chemical additives.
 However, when using the obtained hybrid fiber concrete with strength class C50/60 and using a reinforcing mesh according to the calculated data, it is possible to reduce the effective thickness of the fiber concrete slab to 27.5 cm installation of fortification.
 The use of a reinforcing mesh in a complex with basalt fiber provides increased resistance of fiber concrete to the action of a high-speed impact due to an increase in the density of the cementing matrix as a result of a decrease in water consumption, as well as due to spatial three-dimensional reinforcement with dispersed basalt fiber. As a result of the mutual combination of the strength characteristics of the concrete matrix at the micro- and macro-levels in hybrid fiber concrete, it is possible to reduce the thickness of reinforced concrete elements and reduce the weight of the protective structure while meeting the requirements of the standards for such fortifications. An increase in the strength of cement stone occurs due to a decrease in the concentration of stresses in places of local stresses and a redistribution of energy throughout the volume of the material.
 The conducted studies of modern hybrid high-strength concrete with basalt fiber create new opportunities for the creation of protective concrete fortifications and fortification structures.

SAFEGUARDING CULTURAL HERITAGE SITE: COMPARATIVE STUDY FOR ESTABLISHING CONSERVATION INITIATIVES ON INDRAPATRA FORT, ACEH BESAR

The Indrapatra Fort cultural heritage site located in the coastal area of Aceh Besar, Indonesia is a relic of Hindu influence. The condition of the fort is decreasing, so that it has a negative impact on securing this cultural heritage site. The lack of a maintenance strategy, continued neglect, and insufficient preservation work by the relevant government conservation agencies have resulted in almost no conservation initiatives for the fort. This paper attempts to establish appropriate conservation initiatives for fort security. This was carried out based on a qualitative approach with a comparative study of local cultural heritage conservation initiatives at Borobudur Temple and Fort Rotterdam. Primary and secondary data were analyzed using descriptive qualitative methods, providing recommendations for initiatives to preserve Indrapatra Fort that could be implemented practically through tangible and intangible aspects. Tangible initiatives are the reconstruction of damaged fortification structures and elements with similar materials, combined with a sound maintenance strategy. Meanwhile, intangible initiatives include performing arts, annual festivals and providing guides.

Memory of the Past in the Multi-Ethnic Space of Danube Cities

The article presents the issues of preserving the historical memory of the cities of Southern Bessarabia (the southwestern part of Odesa region, Ukraine). The specific features of the region’s historical development, frequent changes in the state affiliation, intermixture and diversity of confessional and ethnographic aspects contributed to the formation of a special, multicultural and polyethnic habitat for the residents of this region. The region’s cities, formed many centuries ago, demonstrate specific, often unique features of the memory of the past, embodied in the temples, street names, residential buildings, and administrative and fortification structures. The preservation of the urban memory and its popularisation serve as the foundation of human beings who are free from prejudice, protect their identity and are tolerant of their neighbours.

The Fortification Structures from Lipova at the End of the Middle Ages and in the Ottoman Period. A reassessment of the Available Sources.

The successive administrations of Lipova (Lippa) from the end of the Middle Ages until the modern period determined numerous changes relative to its historical topography and urban structures, including its fortifications. The direct association of the settlement with the Hungarian royalty in the fourteenth century, the transition from the fifteenth-century oppidum to the urban status of the sixteenth century and the shaping of a regional administrative centre according to Ottoman traditions generated a highly dynamic historical topography. The scholarly debate on the fortified structures of Lipova can be traced back to the second half of the nineteenth century. Its unknowns and discussions range from the simultaneous number of fortifications directly connected to the late medieval urban centre, their dating, exact location, extent, and particular architectural components. In the last century, scientists revisited the topic circumstantially. It remained problematic, primarily because all the material traces of the fortifications were demolished at the beginning of the 1700s, and they still await archaeological investigations. In the stated circumstances, we resume discussing the available sources that can help us reconstruct the configuration of fortifications during the fifteenth–seventeenth centuries by presenting their potential. Our preliminary study confronts the sparse archaeological data with pragmatic literature, narrative sources, and highly overlooked cartographic documents. Above all, we examine the cartographic sources of the late seventeenth century and their historical context because they recorded the spatial outline and the coexistence of three fortified precincts one inside another. The combined sources show that the medieval castle persisted at the very core of a mid-sixteenth-century bastion fortification encircled by the ample town precinct.

СТРАТИНСЬКІ МІСЬКІ УКРІПЛЕННЯ: ДАТУВАННЯ СПОРУДЖЕННЯ, ЕФЕКТИВНІСТЬ, РОЗПЛАНУВАЛЬНІ ТА ОБ’ЄМНО-ПРОСТОРОВІ ХАРАКТЕРИСТИКИ

Based on the results of scientific expeditions and field surveys, the article examines the problems of construction dating, functioning efficiency, localization and identification of structures and fortifications, the planning and spatial structure of the Stratyn city fortifications. The relevance of the research is determined by the fact that, apart from the reports of four scientific expeditions, no full-fledged scientific article was devoted to Stratyn's city fortifications. The study, based on the analysis of historical sources and the military-political situation, puts forward an assumption about the period of construction of city fortifications and their role in the Polish-Turkish wars of the 1670s. Based on the analysis of cartographic sources and field surveys, an analysis of the planning structure was carried out, the location was determined and fortification structures and fortifications were identified. On the basis of the analysis of the fortification and technological features of the preserved fragments of ramparts, ditches and sites of buildings, it was concluded that the Stratyn city fortifications belong to the bastion defense system common in the western Ukrainian lands.

Determination of the enclosed-type field fortifications structures resistance against the nuclear explosion shock wave

The purpose of the article is to publish the results of research on determining the stability of the structures of enclosed-type field fortification structures against the nuclear explosion shock wave.
 Having received a worthy repulse of aggression, assessing its losses and the capabilities of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, Russia moved to direct threats to use nuclear weapons.
 With this development of the war, the protection of our troops must be carried out by sheltering personnel, weapons and equipment in the enclosed type field fortifications; the stability of these structures must be sufficient, in particular, to counteract the nuclear explosion shock wave.
 Calculation of the stability of such structures against the nuclear explosion shock wave is proposed to be carried out in two stages.
 At the first stage, the estimated loads of the nuclear explosion shock wave on the main protective elements of the fortification are calculated. The calculation is based on the law of similarity during explosions, which allows determining the parameters of the shock wave at different distances from the epicenter of a nuclear explosion.
 At the second stage, the actual stress during dynamic loads, which occurs as a result of the impact of a shock wave on the structure of a certain fortification structure, is determined.
 The basis of the calculations at this stage is the determination of the moment of resistance of the fortification structure elements, the load intensity, the bending moment for an evenly distributed load on the main structural elements, and the compressive force transmitted through these elements.
 Each stage of calculations is illustrated by examples. The proposed procedure for determining the stability of structures of the enclosed-type field fortifications against the nuclear explosion shock wave allows you to choose the material of the right size for these structures, which will ensure the stability of their functioning and the necessary survivability of personnel during a nuclear explosion.

A Reassessment of the Middle Bronze Age Cultures in the Lake Orūmīyeh Basin, Iran

Abstract This article examines the Middle Bronze Age archaeological evidence from surveys and excavations conducted in the in the area of the Lake Orūmīyeh basin in what is now north-western Iran. The sites were first analysed with regard to their more general classification, for example in relation to their geographical locations or according to the presence or absence of fortification structures. Another aspect discussed in the article concerns pottery traditions and their territorial distribution. The situation from this perspective is particularly interesting and complex due to the identification over the years of three different pottery traditions. The results of these analyses have led to new proposals concerning the Middle Bronze Age settlement pattern in this area.

Форт №5 в исторической памяти калининградцев

The Königsberg Fort № 5 “Friedrich Wilhelm III”, built in the second half of the 19th century was never used in military operations before the Second World War. But during the storm of Königsberg by the Soviet troops in April, 1945, it had been exposed to the attacks of all kinds of forces of the 3rd Belorussian front for four days and was surrendered by the German command. Later fifteen men were awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union for the fort storming. The article is based on the unpublished documents dating from 1970—1980s from the archives of the Kaliningrad Regional Museum of History and Art which are related to the events of the East Prussian invasion. The author studies the process of including the former German fortress in the historical memory of the Soviet Kaliningrad inhabitants. The article identifies the reasons for the museumisation of the fortress among other fortification structures and its formation as a place of memory. Two concept plans of turning the fort into a memorial are described and analyzed in detail: projects by sculptors from the Moscow organization Rosmonumentyskusstvo and by workers of the Regional Museum of History and Art. The conclusion is made about the principles of reconstruction and the limits of what is admissible in the process of adjusting the German monuments to the objectives of the memory policy aimed at filling the historic landscape of the city with the Soviet attributes. The conclusion substantiates the key role of the memorial opened at Fort № 5 as a mediator (media) between the past of the region and the inhabitants of the region to promote the historical narrative about the storming of Königsberg by the Red Army as the central event of the East Prussian operation of 1945.

Study on Permeability of Concrete Fortifications from WW2 Based on Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry

Quantification of water transport properties of concrete is crucial for prediction of the material degradation processes. In case of 80 years ́ old concrete of fortification structures of former Czechoslovakia, its permeability is the determining factor of the scale of degradation. Mercury intrusion porosimetry was used to characterize the porous system of seven existing bunkers from the defence line ”Pražská čára” and to calculate the permeability using model of Bágel and Živica. Results showed the altered structure of the old concrete, characterized by no notable peaks, which mark the critical pore radius most responsible for water intake. The majority of pores are small micropores, which does not contribute much in the water transport. However, calculated permeability is high enough to be the cause of several degradation processes. The performed program also confirmed high variability of permeability properties between individual structures.

Experimental Campaign to Verify the Suitability of Ultrasound Testing Method for Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete Fortification Structures

Fortification structures, both military and civilian, are designed to resist a blast explosion to some extent. Their technical condition after a blast load must be assessed in a fast and reliable way to enable the users’ decision about the future use of the structure. Preferably, for the assessment of the protective structure, the non-destructive testing method should be used. To assess the suitability of ultrasound testing method for fortification structures built from steel fiber reinforced concrete, an investigation in a laboratory and in situ was conducted, together with numerical simulation and statistical evaluation. The numerical simulation of the blast load of a steel fiber reinforced concrete slab was conducted using multiphysics simulation software with the aim to verify basic parameters of the field experiment. During the field tests, several slabs were loaded by plastic explosive and changes in the structure of the slabs, before and after the blast load, were examined using the ultrasound pass-through method. After the field tests, the slabs were subjected to a destructive laboratory test to determine their residual strength. Subsequently, the data sets obtained from the measurements were tested using functional data analysis. The results from the ultrasound pulse method show that specimens after a dynamic blast load can in some cases increase the strength of their cement matrix.

INTEGRATION BETWEEN BUILDING INFORMATION MODELING AND GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR HISTORIC BUILDINGS AND SITES: HISTORIC-BIM-GIS

Abstract. The paper presents a novel prototype of integrated Historic BIM-GIS able to deal with multi-source, -scale, and -temporal information. It combines elements from the cartographic scale to a more detailed level of detail towards the building. It can be defined as a 3D virtual environment with an associate (geo)database able to encapsulate heterogeneous data not limited to products derived from the geometric survey, notwithstanding digital recording and its deliverables play a fundamental role. The system also provides a good interoperability level so that BIM and GIS software can exchange information, avoiding the implementation of functions and tools already available in other software packages. The example proposed in this contribution is related to the system of fortified structures around the city of Sondrio. Here, a single 3D environment was developed to encapsulate information from the cartographic level in an area of more than 135 km2 to the scale of 1:1 for specific architectural elements.

Structural and technical characteristics of the fortification system of the Dikaya Yama hillfort of the Early Iron Age in the Middle Tobol River area

The paper reports the results of the studies of the fortification system of the Early Iron Age Dikaya Yama hill-fort situated in the Middle Tobol River region of the Western Siberian forest-steppe zone. The hillfort was built by the population of the Sargatka Culture, and it is dated to the 3rd c. BC — 1st c. AD. The defence lines at the junc-tion of two adjacent fortified platforms have been studied. It has been determined that the earthwork of the first platform was built up from turfen blocks; the presence of traces of postholes suggests that the earthwork was reinforced with a wooden-frame wall — a wattle fence. The ditch between the platforms had a trapezoidal shape with the size of 3.2–4 m of the upper part and 1.2–1.6 m of the lower part. The soil from the ditch was placed into the mound of the rampart of the second platform. The mathematical analysis of the volume of earth making the mound of the rampart allowed establishing its height of 2.0 m. Analysis of the stratigraphy and planigraphy re-vealed the remains of a frame structure set on the rampart. The wattle fence on top of the rampart and the para-pet along it have been reconstructed. Moreover, there have been identified the remains of a frame-and-pillar structure installed into the body of the rampart, which was aimed to strengthen the mound and prevent untimely slipping. A graphic reconstruction of the appearance of the fortifications existed on the studied site has been cre-ated. Carcass fortifications of the wattle fence type, a wall constructed in “zaplot” technique, set on the rampart, have analogies in the Early Iron Age hillforts of the Tobol-Irtysh interfluve: Kolovskoe, Rafailovskoe, Ak-Tau, and Pavlinovo. There existed a tradition of mounting a palisade into a ditch-trench — such structures have been re-corded at the hillforts of Borovushka, Likhachevskoe, Bochanetskoe, Inberen 4 and Rozanovo, Mar'ino Ushchel'ye 4 and Malo-Kazakbaevskoe. The fortification system of the hillfort of Dikaya Yama, which, structurally, is represented by the earthwork ramparts on top of which there were mounted wooden walls in the technique of the wattle fence, is consistent with the traditional scheme of the fortifications of the Early Iron Age population. The question of simultaneous or sequential building of the platforms of the hillfort will be addressed in future work. However, the unified planning solution in organizing forms of the fortification structures implies, in our opinion, preliminary design of the whole settlement and its construction at one time.