Forms Of Violence Exposure Research Articles

A Four-Wave Cross-Lagged Study of Exposure to Violent Contexts, Cognitive Distortions, and School Bullying during Adolescence.

School bullying represents a widespread expression of violence in the peer context. Guided by the social-ecological model, this study investigated the longitudinal and transactional pathways linking domestic and neighborhood/community violence exposure (through direct victimization and witnessing), self-serving cognitive distortions (CDs), and school bullying perpetration. Furthermore, consistent with the previous literature, we tested the cognitive desensitization process that could develop in response to chronically violent contexts. Two four-wave cross-lagged panel mediation models were tested in a sample of 778 high school students (28.1% males; Mage [Time 1; T1] = 14.20, SD = 0.58). The results showed differential effects of multiple contexts and forms of violence exposure, with domestic violence victimization and community violence witnessing being associated with self-serving CDs and bullying perpetration over time. Moreover, significant associations between CDs and bullying perpetration over time were found, with bidirectional effects for each of these longitudinal patterns. Finally, self-serving CDs significantly mediated the relationships between both domestic violence victimization and community violence witnessing and school bullying perpetration. These findings highlight the need to consider school bullying as a social phenomenon stemming from a complex and bidirectional interplay between individuals and the environments they inhabit, confirming a basic postulate that "violence breeds violence".

Sexual violence affects adolescents’ health and prosocial behaviour beyond other violence exposure

ABSTRACT Background: Sexual violence is a public health issue among adolescents globally but remains understudied in Sub-Saharan Africa. Objective: The present study focused on the association of cumulative exposure to different types of sexual violence with mental and physical health problems and prosocial behaviour. Method: We conducted a survey with a regionally representative sample of both in-school and out-of-school adolescents, aged 13–17 years, living in south-western Nigeria. Self-reported exposure to sexual violence, behavioural problems, physical complaints, and prosocial behaviour were assessed. Results: About three quarters of the participants reported the experience of sexual violence (74.6%). Multiple regression models revealed that the more types of sexual violence an individual reported, the more mental and physical health problems, and the fewer prosocial behaviours they reported when controlling for other forms of violence exposure. Latent class analysis revealed three severity classes of sexual violence. Symptoms of mental and physical health indicators were significantly higher as exposure increased by group whereas prosocial behaviours were non-significantly fewer in the opposite direction. Conclusion: This study revealed a consistent and unique relation between sexual violence exposure and negative health outcomes among adolescents. Further research on sexual violence in Sub-Saharan Africa and its associations is needed.

Inequalities in Exposure to Firearm Violence by Race, Sex, and Birth Cohort From Childhood to Age 40 Years, 1995-2021

The past quarter-century has seen both sharp declines and increases in firearm violence in the United States. Yet, little is known about the age of first exposure to firearm violence and how it may differ by race, sex, and cohort. To examine race, sex, and cohort differences in exposure to firearm violence in a representative longitudinal study of children who grew up in periods with varying rates of firearm violence in the United States and to examine spatial proximity to firearm violence in adulthood. This population-based representative cohort study included multiple cohorts of children followed-up from 1995 through 2021 in the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN). Participants included Black, Hispanic, and White respondents from 4 age cohorts of Chicago, Illinois, residents, with modal birth years of 1981, 1984, 1987, and 1996. Data analyses were conducted from May 2022 to March 2023. Firearm violence exposure, including age when first shot, age when first saw someone shot, and past-year frequency of fatal and nonfatal shootings within 250 m of residence. There were 2418 participants in wave 1 (in the mid-1990s), and they were evenly split by sex, with 1209 males (50.00%) and 1209 females (50.00%). There were 890 Black respondents, 1146 Hispanic respondents, and 382 White respondents. Male respondents were much more likely than female respondents to have been shot (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR], 4.23; 95% CI, 2.28-7.84), but only moderately more likely to have seen someone shot (aHR, 1.48; 95% CI, 1.27-1.72). Compared with White individuals, Black individuals experienced higher rates of all 3 forms of exposure (been shot: aHR, 3.05; 95% CI, 1.22-7.60; seen someone shot: aHR, 4.69; 95% CI, 3.41-6.46; nearby shootings: adjusted incidence rate ratio [aIRR], 12.40; 95% CI, 6.88-22.35), and Hispanic respondents experienced higher rates of 2 forms of violence exposure (seen someone shot: aHR, 2.59; 95% CI, 1.85-3.62; nearby shootings: aIRR, 3.77; 95% CI, 2.08-6.84). Respondents born in the mid-1990s who grew up amidst large declines in homicide but reached adulthood during city and national spikes in firearm violence in 2016 were less likely to have seen someone shot than those born in the early 1980s who grew up during the peak of homicide in the early 1990s (aHR, 0.49; 95% CI, 0.35-0.69). However, the likelihood of having been shot did not significantly differ between these cohorts (aHR, 0.81; 95% CI, 0.40-1.63). In this longitudinal multicohort study of exposure to firearm violence, there were stark differences by race and sex, yet the extent of exposure to violence was not simply the product of these characteristics. These findings on cohort differences suggest changing societal conditions were key factors associated with whether and at what life stage individuals from all race and sex groups were exposed to firearm violence.

Comparisons of violence exposure within and across contexts in predicting depression among Chinese children and adolescents

BackgroundExisting research has identified violence exposure as a risk factor for depression among children and adolescents. To date, however, we know little about whether these associations are influenced by the forms (witnessing and victimization) of violence exposure across different contexts (family, school, and community). ObjectiveThe present study thus aimed to compare the effects of two forms of violence exposure across and within three contexts. Sex and age differences were also tested in the above associations. Participants and settingParticipants (N = 906, 52.4 % boys, T1: Mage = 11.03) were children and adolescents recruited from elementary and junior schools in Zhejiang Province, China. MethodsAll participants were asked to complete questionnaires about their experiences of various types of violence exposure and depression at two time points with a 12-month interval. SPSS and Mplus were used to analyze the data. ResultsConsidering the comparison within contexts, witnessing family violence was a more influential predictor than family violence victimization while school violence was the opposite. As for the comparison across contexts, no significant differences were found in the effects of different violence victimization, while the effect of witnessing family violence and community violence were more influential than witnessing school violence. No significant sex differences in the above associations were found. However, community violence victimization was more negatively related to depression among adolescents compared with children. ConclusionsThe associations between violence exposure and depression are influenced by the forms and contexts of violence as well as age groups.

Violence exposure across multiple contexts as predictors of reactive and proactive aggression in Chinese preadolescents.

Based on different functions of aggression, the conceptual distinction of reactive and proactive aggression has been proposed. It is widely acknowledged that adolescents' violence exposure contributes to later perpetration of aggressive behaviors. However, few studies have compared the effects of violence exposure on reactive/proactive aggression based on the forms (i.e., witnessing and being victimized) and the contexts (i.e., family, community, and school), especially in preadolescents. Thus, the relationship between two forms of violence exposure (witnessing and victimization) and later perpetrating reactive and proactive aggression were compared within and across three social contexts in a sample of Chinese preadolescents. Participants were 609 preadolescents 51.9% boys) recruited from five primary schools in China. Information on two forms of violence exposure across multiple contexts and demography were collected at Time 1 (Mage = 10.65), and aggression data (i.e., reactive and proactive aggression) were collected a year later at Time 2. Results evidenced witnessing and being victimized by violence in the home were more consistently related to later perpetration of reactive and proactive aggression. Witnessing family violence was significantly associated with later perpetration of reactive aggression than witnessing violence in the community. Being victimized by violence in the community and the home were significantly associated with later perpetration of proactive aggression than school victimization. These findings provide a deeper understanding of the roles of both types of violence exposure across contexts in later perpetration of aggression during early adolescence.

The comparative and cumulative impact of different forms of violence exposure during childhood and adolescence on long-term adult outcomes.

Violence exposure during childhood and adolescence is associated with a range of negative psychosocial outcomes. Research examining the impact of violence exposure has been limited by the compartmentalization into separate bodies of research (e.g., community violence, domestic violence). There is also a paucity of research examining long-term adult outcomes. Using a large and racially diverse sample (n = 754; male = 58%; Black = 46%), the current longitudinal study aimed to elucidate the comparative and cumulative effect of different types of violence exposure (witnessing vs. victimization) across different locations (home, school, neighborhood) in childhood and adolescence (lifetime through Grade 8) on long-term internalizing, externalizing, and attention problems; substance use; and intimate partner violence in adulthood (age 25). Victimization, but not witnessing violence, predicted all five adult outcomes. Specifically, being victimized at home was associated with the widest range of negative outcomes (internalizing, externalizing, and attention problems), while school victimization was associated with substance use. Further, when youth experienced multiple types of violence across multiple locations (cumulative violence exposure), they experienced a more diverse range of negative outcomes in adulthood (composite score). The current study highlights the stronger effects of violence exposure in more proximal contexts, and how these locations are important for emotional and behavioral development.

Does cyberbullying occur simultaneously with other types of violence exposure?

Objective:Our study aimed to verify whether cyberbullying victimization among adolescents occurs concomitantly with other forms of violence exposure (at home, at school and in the community).Methods:A collaborative longitudinal study by Norwegian and Brazilian researchers was conducted in Itaboraí, a low-income city in southeast Brazil. At baseline, trained interviewers applied a semi-structured questionnaire to a population-based sample of 669 in-school adolescents (11-15 years old). The investigated types of violence exposure included cyberbullying, traditional bullying, severe physical punishment by parents and community violence (victimization and eye-witnessed violent events outside the home and school).Results:In the previous six months, 1.9% of the adolescents had been victims of cyberbullying, and 21.9% had been victims of physical aggression, verbal harassment and/or social manipulation by peers. However, only 5.5% of the adolescents considered themselves bullying victims. In the previous 12 months, 12.4% of adolescents had suffered severe physical punishment, 14.0% had been victims of community violence, and 20.9% eye-witnessed community violence. Multivariable regression analysis showed that victimization by multiple types of traditional bullying and self-perceived bullying victimization were correlates of cyberbullying victimization, while suffering violence at home and in the community were not.Conclusion:This study provides evidence of an association between cyberbullying, traditional bullying and self-perceived bullying among low-income Brazilian adolescents.

Social support, violence exposure and mental health among young South African adolescents

Objective: Cumulative violence exposure has been associated with both internalising and externalising difficulties in youth. Therefore, it is important to identify protective factors that may ameliorate both exposure to and the impact of cumulative violence. This study aimed to identify sources of perceived social support amongst early adolescents in a low-income, high-violence community in South Africa, and to examine the association of perceived support with exposure to violence and with the severity of depression, aggression and conduct disorder symptoms.Method: A sample of 615 Grade 7 learners completed measures of perceived social support, different types of violence exposure and symptoms of depression, aggression and conduct disorder.Results: Maternal, paternal and overall family support were weakly associated with a reduced risk of domestic violence, but not with other forms of violence exposure, and were also weakly associated with a reduced risk of mental health difficulties. Peer support was associated with higher symptomatology across all mental health outcomes while teacher support was associated with greater severity of depression.Conclusions: The stress-buffering effects of social support may not be maintained in contexts of high exposure to violence. Implications for interventions to enhance youth safety and resilience in high-violence contexts are considered.

Mental health service use among high school students exposed to interpersonal violence.

Violence-exposed youth rarely receive mental health services, even though exposure increases risk for academic and psychosocial problems. This study examines the association between violence exposure and mental health service contact. The 4 forms of violence exposure were peer, family, sexual, and witnessing. Data are from 1534 Boston public high school students who participated in a 2008 self-report survey of violence exposure and its correlates. Multivariate logistic regressions estimated associations between each form of violence with service contact, then examined whether associations persisted when controlling for suicidality and self-injurious behaviors. In unadjusted models, violence-exposed students more often reported service contact than their peers. However, in multivariate models, only exposure to family (odds ratio [OR] = 1.69, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.23-2.31) and sexual violence (OR = 2.34, 95% CI = 1.29-4.20) were associated with service contact. Associations attenuated when controlling for suicidality and self-injurious behaviors, indicating they were largely explained by self-harm. Sexual violence alone remained associated with mental health service contact in fully adjusted models, but only for girls (OR=3.32, 95% CI=1.30-8.45), suggesting sex-specific pathways. Associations between adolescent violence exposure and mental health service contact vary by forms of exposure. Outreach to a broader set of exposed youth may reduce the impact of violence and its consequences for vulnerable students.

Violence Exposure, Sleep Disturbance, and Poor Academic Performance in Middle School

Violence has been linked to poor academic outcomes in youth, but there is little understanding of the mechanisms underlying this relation. This longitudinal survey study investigated whether sleep disturbance potentially mediates the associations between academic achievement and two forms of violence exposure--community violence and peer victimization-- in 498 seventh-grade youth. Structural equation models showed that community violence was associated with lower grade point average (GPA) directly and indirectly via sleep problems, whereas peer victimization was associated with lower GPA just indirectly via sleep problems. The structural models controlled for potential confounds, including depressive symptoms, intrusive thoughts and absenteeism. The findings suggest that failing grades and sleepiness in school may be signs that youth are exposed to violence. Interventions to improve sleep hygiene and reduce violence exposure may help to improve academic outcomes for youth.

Women, War, and Violence: Surviving the Experience

To investigate how Lebanese women were affected by the July 2006 conflict that erupted between the Hezbollah and the State of Israel, with a specific focus on their personal violence exposure and how they coped with these circumstances. Participants were 310 women at Ministry of Social Affairs Centers (MOSA) located in six geographic areas with varying exposure to the conflict. A questionnaire was administered in interview format to collect information about the participants' demographic characteristics, experiences of the conflict, perceived psychological functioning, exposure to violence associated with the conflict, exposure to domestic violence during and after the conflict, and their coping strategies. Of the women, 89% had to leave their homes during the conflict because of fear or worry about safety. Of the 310 participants, 39% reported at least one encounter with violence perpetrated by soldiers, 27% reported at least one incident of domestic abuse during the conflict, and 13% reported at least one incident after the conflict perpetrated by their husbands or other family members. Women's self-reported negative mental health scores were positively correlated with the violence associated with the conflict and with domestic violence during and after the conflict. Women who reported that they did not know how to cope or had just tried to forget about their experiences reported more frequent domestic violence exposure during the conflict and had higher negative mental health outcomes associated with the conflict than did those who reported using active strategies. During armed conflict, domestic violence is also likely to increase. Therefore, when investigating the psychological impact of war on women, both forms of violence exposure should be considered. The use of active coping strategies may help in reducing psychological distress.

Violence Exposure and Early Adolescent Alcohol Use: An Exploratory Study of Family Risk and Protective Factors

In this short-term longitudinal exploratory interview study, the relations between exposure to community violence and subsequent alcohol use were examined, with a focus on caregiver and family variables as moderators. Maternal caregivers and their children (N =101 families; 98% African American; M child age = 11.2 yrs) were interviewed separately and completed measures of violence exposure, caregiver and child adjustment, including substance use, and family functioning. Family interaction was also videotaped and coded. Child alcohol use at Time 2 was positively associated with all forms of violence exposure, and was negatively related to felt acceptance from caregiver, but was not associated with caregiver-rated family competence, observer-rated family interaction, maternal problems with alcohol, or maternal psychopathology. Logistic regression analyses predicting child alcohol use at Time 2 indicated that exposure to community violence increased risk of alcohol use, and felt acceptance from the caregiver decreased the likelihood of alcohol use, but did not buffer the effects of violence exposure on alcohol use. Implications and future directions are discussed.

Exploring Violence Exposure, Stress, Protective Factors and Behavioral Problems Among Inner‐City Youth

This study examined relationships between violence exposure, other stressors, family support, and self-concept on self-reported behavioral problems among 320 urban adolescents (aged 11-18) referred for mental health treatment. Overall, participants reported high levels of violence exposure, with a median of six past encounters with violence as a witness, victim, or through the experiences of associates. All forms of violence exposure (witnessing, being a victim, knowing of victims) were correlated with internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems for males and females. Total violence exposure predicted behavioral problems among participants, even after controlling for the effects of other risk, demographic and protective factors. Family support and self-concept moderated the influence of life stress and cumulative risk on problem behavior outcomes, but these protective variables did not significantly moderate violence exposure.