Forms Of Repetitive Negative Thinking Research Articles

Investigating the transdiagnostic potential of rumination in relation to Cluster B personality disorder symptoms.

This study examined several forms of repetitive negative thinking in relation to measures of Cluster B disorders to identify unique and co-occurring cognitive mechanisms contributing to these symptom presentations. MTurk participants (N = 725; 53% men; 76% White) completed categorical and dimensional trait-based measures of Cluster B disorders alongside six measures of rumination and worry. Oversampling strategies were used during participant recruitment to obtain a sample with clinically relevant personality features. Path analyses examined each form of repetitive negative thinking in relation to Cluster B measures while controlling for shared variance between each construct. Anger rumination demonstrated notable relations across all four Cluster B personality disorders. Similarly, sadness rumination was positively associated with all four Cluster B personality disorders. Self-critical rumination and depressive rumination were uniquely associated with borderline symptoms. Worry demonstrated negative associations with measures of narcissistic, histrionic, and antisocial/psychopathy symptoms. Findings expand previous research by highlighting probable transdiagnostic and distinguishing cognitive process contributing to the presentation of Cluster B personality pathology. However, partialling the influence of overlapping constructs presents notable challenges in identifying and interpreting unique relations between various forms of repetitive negative thinking and Cluster B symptoms. Future research investigating these relations within outpatient and inpatient samples may provide avenues for the development of effective cognitive-based interventions for treating these symptoms. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Managing Rumination and worry: A randomised controlled trial of an internet intervention targeting repetitive negative thinking delivered with and without clinician guidance

BackgroundRumination and worry, forms of repetitive negative thinking (RNT), are implicated in the onset, maintenance, severity, and relapse risk of depression and anxiety disorders. This randomised controlled trial evaluated an internet intervention targeting both rumination and worry in adults compared to treatment-as-usual (TAU) and compared treatment effects and adherence when delivered with and without clinician guidance. MethodsAdults (N = 137) with elevated RNT were randomly allocated to a 3-lesson clinician guided (n = 45) or self-help (n = 47) online program delivered over 6 weeks, or a TAU control group which waited 18 weeks to receive the program (n = 45). The clinician guided group received semi-structured phone support after each lesson. All three groups continued any pre-trial TAU. RNT, anxiety, depression, and psychological distress were assessed at baseline, post-treatment (week 7), and 3-month follow-up. ResultsIntention-to-treat linear mixed models showed that participants in the self-help and clinician guided groups had significantly lower RNT, anxiety, depression, and distress at post-treatment and 3-month follow-up compared to TAU. Treatment effects were significantly larger in the clinician guided group compared to self-help (between-group gs = 0.41–0.97). No significant between-group differences were found in adherence/program completion (guided: 76%; self-guided: 79%) or treatment satisfaction (1–5 scale: guided: M = 4.17, SD = 1.20; self-guided: M = 3.89, SD = 0.93). Total time spent on clinician guidance was M = 48.64 min (SD = 21.28). ConclusionThis brief online intervention for RNT is acceptable and efficacious in reducing RNT, anxiety, depression, and distress in both clinician guided and self-help formats. The program appeared most effective when delivered with clinician guidance. Larger definitive trials comparing guided and self-guided programs are needed.Australian and New Zealand Clinical Trials Registration number: ACTRN12620000959976.

Actigraphic Wake after Sleep Onset and Symptom Severity Correspond with Rumination in Trauma-Exposed Individuals.

Rumination and worry are forms of repetitive negative thinking (RNT) commonly associated with internalizing psychopathologies, although less is known about RNT in trauma-exposed individuals with internalizing psychopathologies. Separate lines of research show RNT also plays a role in problematic sleep, which is frequently experienced after trauma exposure. To address gaps in the literature, the current study examines the impact of sleep and symptoms on RNT in trauma-exposed participants. A transdiagnostic sample of 46 unmedicated treatment-seeking trauma-exposed participants completed standard measures of rumination and worry, as well as clinical measures that assessed posttraumatic stress, depression, and anxiety severity. Actigraphic sleep variables were sleep duration, wake after sleep onset (WASO), and sleep efficiency. Sleep and clinical measures were submitted to multiple regression analyses with rumination and worry as dependent variables. The regression results showed that rumination was significantly explained by WASO and posttraumatic stress symptom (PTSS) severity, and the omnibus test was significant. Depression, anxiety, and other estimates of sleep were not significant. No significant results emerged for worry. Preliminary findings suggest that PTSS and WASO, an index of fragmented sleep, may contribute to rumination, but not worry, in trauma-exposed individuals. Longitudinal studies are needed to determine potential causal relationships.

The Bi-factor model of repetitive negative thinking: Common vs. unique factors as predictors of depression and anxiety

Background and objectivesDifferent forms of repetitive negative thinking (RNT) have traditionally been conceptualized as being distinctly linked to specific disorders. However, emerging evidence suggests that a common process lies at the core of different RNT manifestations. This common process might also largely explain the link between RNT and psychopathology. To examine the latent factor structure of RNT, we compared three structural-equation models, assuming (a) a common factor across different RNT measures (single-factor model); (b) scale-specific factors for each RNT measures (separate-factor model); and (c) both a common and scale-specific factors (bi-factor model). We additionally tested whether these latent factors predicted depression and anxiety at a follow-up time-point. MethodsA community sample (N = 523) completed an online assessment comprising measures of rumination, worry and content-independent RNT as well as depressive and anxiety symptoms at baseline (t1) and three months later (t2). ResultsThe bi-factor model showed the best fit to the data among the three models. Moreover, the common factor of the bi-factor model significantly predicted depression and anxiety three months later. Next to the common factor, some but not all scale-specific factors additionally predicted symptoms. LimitationsThe study was conducted in a non-clinical sample and the assessment of psychopathology was restricted to depressive and anxiety symptoms. ConclusionsThe findings support transdiagnostic conceptualizations of RNT, which highlight common aspects of different forms of RNT as well as the relevance of RNT across different diagnostic categories.

Repetitive Negative Thinking Processes Account for Gender Differences in Depression and Anxiety During Adolescence

Rumination and worry are vulnerability factors involved in the early development of depression and anxiety during adolescence, particularly in girls. Current views conceptualize rumination and worry as transdiagnostic forms of repetitive negative thinking (RNT). However, most of research has analyzed them separately, without considering gender differences. We analyzed common and specific roles of rumination and worry in accounting for depressive and anxiety symptom levels overall and as a function of gender in adolescents (N = 159). Rumination and worry items were loaded into separate RNT factors. Girls showed a higher use of rumination and worry and higher levels of depression and anxiety than boys. Structural equation modeling supported that both RNT factors accounted for gender differences in symptom levels: rumination was the strongest mediator for depression and worry the strongest mediator for anxiety. Our findings support both general and specific contributions of RNT to account for affective symptomatology during adolescence, particularly in girls.

Repetitive negative thinking: transdiagnostic correlate and risk factor for mental disorders? A proof-of-concept study in German soldiers before and after deployment to Afghanistan

Background and objectivesDisorder-specific forms of Repetitive Negative Thinking (RNT) are associated with multiple diagnostic categories, indicating a transdiagnostic nature. Few studies examined content-independent RNT processes across groups of diagnosed mental disorders. Moreover, theory describes RNT processes as critically involved in the etiology of mental disorders, empirical evidence however is scarce. We first tested the transdiagnostic nature by examining levels of RNT across groups of internalizing and externalizing mental disorders compared to healthy individuals and explored RNT levels in a comorbid disorder-group. Second, we examined whether RNT predicts incident psychopathology.MethodsIn a sample of German soldiers (n = 425) scheduled for deployment in Afghanistan, we compared RNT levels between diagnosed groups with alcohol use disorders, anxiety disorders and healthy individuals cross-sectionally. Exploratory analyses were conducted comparing a comorbid disorder-group to healthy individuals and to both single-disorder-groups. Longitudinally, we examined the predictive value of pre-deployment RNT levels for incident psychopathology after deployment (n = 167). RNT was measured using the Perseverative Thinking Questionnaire (PTQ), DSM-IV diagnoses were assessed using the standardized Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI).ResultsCross-sectional comparisons revealed that soldiers with alcohol use disorders and anxiety disorders showed significantly higher degrees of RNT compared to healthy soldiers. RNT levels in those with comorbid disorders were significantly higher compared to healthy soldiers but also compared to both single-disorder-groups. Longitudinal analyses revealed that higher levels of RNT prior to deployment were associated with a higher risk to have any incidental mental disorder after deployment. This however is only attributable to individuals with a PTQ score above a cut-off of 15.ConclusionsFindings provide evidence for RNT as a transdiagnostic correlate and a vulnerability factor for the development of mental disorders.

Rumination as a transdiagnostic process: The role of rumination in relation to antisocial and borderline symptoms

The present study examined the influence of several forms of repetitive negative thinking on antisocial and borderline symptoms to identify underlying mechanisms that may contribute to the presentation and cooccurrence of these symptoms. Participants (N = 403), completed the Personality Assessment Inventory, the Personality Diagnostic Questionnaire-4, and several measures of rumination/worry. Path analyses were conducted in which different forms of rumination/worry predicted antisocial and borderline symptoms across two personality disorder measures. Across both models tested, anger rumination emerged as the strongest predictor of both antisocial and borderline symptoms while worry negatively predicted antisocial symptoms. Rumination and worry explained substantially more variance in borderline symptoms compared to antisocial symptoms. This study is the first study to examine antisocial symptoms in relation to forms of rumination/worry and highlights the differential relations of rumination/worry to antisocial and borderline symptoms using a multi-measure approach. Further, this study highlights the importance of examining types of repetitive negative thinking, specifically rumination, as potential transdiagnostic processes.

Managing rumination and worry: A pilot study of an internet intervention targeting repetitive negative thinking in Australian adults

BackgroundRumination and worry, both forms of repetitive negative thinking (RNT), have been implicated in the onset, maintenance, severity, and relapse risk of depression and anxiety disorders. Despite promising initial findings for internet-delivered interventions targeting both rumination and worry simultaneously, no studies have investigated treatment effects in an adult population or when delivered in a brief, unguided format. We developed a 3-lesson unguided online treatment program targeting both rumination and worry and evaluated the adherence and effectiveness in Australian adults using an open pilot trial. MethodsAdult participants (N=26) experiencing elevated levels of RNT completed the online program over 6-weeks. Outcomes were assessed at baseline, post-treatment, and 1-month follow-up. Intention-to-treat linear mixed models were used to examine effects on RNT, anxiety, depression, and general psychological distress. ResultsOf the 26 participants who started the program, 18 completed all three lessons (69.2% completion rate). Large within-subject effect sizes were found between pre- and post-treatment for RNT (Hedges’ g= 2.26) and symptoms of depression (g = 1.04), generalised anxiety (g = 1.82) and distress (g = 0.93). Treatment effects were maintained at 1-month follow-up. LimitationsNo long-term follow-up, exclusion of severely depressed individuals. ConclusionsThis is the first study to evaluate a brief, unguided internet intervention targeting both rumination and worry in adults. The results provide promising preliminary evidence for the feasibility and acceptability of the online program. Randomised controlled trials are needed to evaluate treatment efficacy compared to a control group and to investigate long-term outcomes.

A schema mode model of repetitive negative thinking

BackgroundSchema Therapy mode formulations have recently been extended to a range of chronic, treatment‐resistant psychological disorders.AimThe aim of this study was to examine whether two forms of repetitive negative thinking (rumination and worry) can be conceptualised as a maladaptive coping mode, we term the “over‐analysing” mode, consistent with Young's schema mode model, which serves to distance individuals from distressing emotional states.MethodologyTwo online survey studies were conducted in community populations: study one (n = 109) investigated the relationship between schema modes, worry, and experiential avoidance. Study two (n = 129) extended the findings to include, in addition to schema modes and experiential avoidance, rumination and repetitive negative thinking.ResultsCorrelational analyses supported all hypothesised relationships across both studies. Mediation analyses across both studies identified a model in which the relationship between angry and vulnerable child modes, and worry, rumination, and repetitive negative thinking, respectively, was mediated by experiential avoidance.ConclusionThese findings conceptually support the addition of a new “over‐analysing” coping mode, which serves an avoidant function through repetitive negative thinking (a central component of mood and anxiety disorders) to the schema mode model. Generalisability of results is limited through the use of a cross‐sectional design and a heterogeneous, nonclinical sample. Further examination of the “over‐analysing” mode may enhance Schema Therapy conceptualisations, particularly in the treatment of mood and anxiety disorders. Moreover, emotion‐focused techniques found to be successful in Schema Therapy for personality disorders (e.g., imagery rescripting, chair‐techniques) may be relevant to modifying maladaptive schemas thoughts to underlie repetitive negative thinking processes such as worry and rumination.

When are Worry and Rumination Negatively Associated with Resting Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia? It Depends: The Moderating Role of Cognitive Reappraisal

Recent research has highlighted the importance of testing interactions between adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies when examining their associations with mental health. However, there has been little work on the interaction between adaptive strategies such as cognitive reappraisal and two forms of repetitive negative thinking (RNT)—worry and rumination. Furthermore, prior research has exclusively relied on self-report measures to assess mental health as the primary outcome and more research is needed to understand the psychophysiological correlates of emotion regulation. To address these limitations, we tested the interaction between cognitive reappraisal and RNT when predicting resting respiratory sinus arrhythmia, which measures heart rate variability across the respiratory cycle and is conceptualized as a transdiagnostic biomarker for psychopathology and emotion regulation capacities. We also predicted depression symptoms as a secondary outcome in an attempt to replicate prior research. In a sample of 233 undergraduates, we found that RNT had a negative association with resting respiratory sinus arrhythmia, but only among participants who reported low levels of cognitive reappraisal use. The effect of RNT on depressive symptoms was not moderated by cognitive reappraisal use. Overall, these results suggest that worry and rumination might have the most detrimental links with physiological functioning when people do not frequently use cognitive reappraisal to regulate affect. This study also underscores the necessity of utilizing psychophysiological measures when modeling interactions between regulatory strategies.

Brief State Rumination Inventory (BSRI): A Standardization Study for Turkish Speaking Populations

Rumination, which is a form of repetitive negative thinking, has been suggested as a variable associated with elevated risks for depression. Current research conceptualizes rumination as a dispositional entity but has neglected its more state-based forms, which may also be equally related to emotional disorders. Brief State Rumination Inventory (BSRI) is a psychometrically sound measure of state rumination, demonstrated to be sensitive to situational changes in rumination. The current study aims to examine the psychometric characteristics of the Turkish form of BSRI. Results of the first study replicated the single factor structure of the original version of BSRI in a group of 192 Turkish speaking adults between ages 18 and 65. Moreover, the Turkish version of BSRI yielded satisfactory levels of internal consistency and construct validity indicated by significant associations with measures of repetitive negative thinking, avoidant coping, and psychological distress. Study 2 examined the sensitivity of BSRI to momentary changes in rumination to assess the criterion validity of the Turkish form of BSRI, by examining its sensitivity to a rumination induction procedure in 66 university students (39 women). Together, these results suggest that the Turkish version of BSRI is a psychometrically reliable tool which is appropriate for the assessment of state rumination in Turkish speaking populations.

Does repetitive negative thinking affect attention? Differential effects of worry and rumination on attention to emotional stimuli.

Worry and rumination, two cardinal responses to emotional events, are key for maintaining negative emotion and have been implicated in the etiology and maintenance of anxiety and depressive disorders. Though worry and rumination are highly correlated with one another and people who engage in one often engage in both, they may differentially affect emotion. Specifically, previous work suggests that worry helps people avoid (intense) emotion, while rumination provokes it. Examining the ways in which these two forms of repetitive negative thinking (RNT) influence cognitive processing of emotional material may help us better understand the emotional sequelae of worry and rumination. This study examines visual attention to emotional information, since attending to certain types of information opens the door for further processing of it. The current study induced worry and rumination and then used eye tracking to compare how each form of RNT influenced the allocation of attention to emotional scenes. Participants induced to worry, compared with those induced to ruminate, spent less time viewing positive (vs. neutral) scenes and were the only group to preferentially maintain their attention on negative images when they were paired with positive images. These findings suggest that worry, compared with rumination, leads to the relative avoidance of positive information. Implications of these findings for research on mood and anxiety disorders are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Impact of imagery-enhanced interpretation training on offline and online interpretations in worry

Worry and rumination are forms of repetitive negative thinking (RNT) that are maintained by negative interpretations and a predominance of abstract, verbal thinking. Hence, facilitating more positive interpretations and imagery-based thinking in combination may reduce RNT. Study 1 administered interpretation training with and without enhanced imagery, and an active control condition (designed not to change interpretations), in individuals with high levels of RNT (worry and/or rumination). Combining interpretation training with sustained imagery resulted in the highest levels of positive interpretation bias using an offline test of interpretation bias (when individuals have time to reflect). Study 2 investigated whether imagery-enhanced interpretation training influences online interpretations when ambiguous information is first encountered, indexed by reaction times and amplitude of the N400 event-related potential, as well as enhances offline positive interpretations in high worriers. It also examined whether imagery-enhanced interpretation training reduces negative thought intrusions associated with worry. Both online (reaction time) and offline interpretations were more positive following imagery-enhanced interpretation training, and negative thoughts were reduced, compared to the active control. However, no differences emerged on neurophysiological markers during the online task. Hence, brief interpretation training encompassing sustained imagery modifies online and offline interpretations, but further training may be required to impact upon neurophysiological measures.

When choosing means losing: Regret enhances repetitive negative thinking in high brooders

Past research suggests a relation between rumination (i.e., a form of repetitive negative thinking and a well-established vulnerability factor for depression) and regret (i.e., negative emotions containing self-blame, connected to cognitions about how past personal actions might have achieved better outcomes). However, these relations have not yet been investigated in experimental designs, and it has not been investigated how regret is related to both trait and state components of rumination. Therefore, in the present study we examined the temporal dynamics of repetitive negative thinking (state) in relation to regret, and how this is affected by interindividual differences in tendencies to engage in ruminative brooding (trait). Healthy females (N = 69) performed a sequential risk-taking task which included counterfactual feedback about alternative personal choice outcomes, and in which they experienced goal nonattainment (i.e., no monetary reward). Repetitive negative thoughts (state) prior to the task, and the tendency for ruminative brooding (trait), were both independently associated with reported regret after goal nonattainment, suggesting that both state and trait components of repetitive negative thinking render individuals more prone to experience regret. Furthermore, there was an interaction between regret after goal nonattainment and brooding (trait), in the sense that regret contributed to increases in (state) repetitive negative thinking, only among high brooders. The current results suggest that, among brooding-inclined individuals, the experience of regret may be a specific mechanism in aggravating repetitive negative thinking, which in turn may contribute to the development of psychopathology.

Are Different Forms of Repetitive Negative Thinking Associated With Interpretation Bias in Generalized Anxiety Disorder and Depression?

Worry and rumination, two forms of repetitive negative thinking (RNT), are prevalent in generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and depression. Cognitive processing biases, especially the tendency to draw negative conclusions from ambiguous information (interpretation bias), may maintain worry and rumination. Yet the relationship between interpretation bias and both forms of RNT has not been explored in clinical versus nonclinical samples. In this cross-sectional study, participants with GAD ( n = 72), depression ( n = 79), or neither disorder ( n = 71) completed two tasks assessing interpretation bias, measures of worry and rumination, and reported negative thought intrusions during a behavioral task. Interpretation bias was associated with higher levels of worry, rumination, and negative thought intrusions. Both clinical groups generated significantly more negative interpretations than healthy comparison participants. These findings link interpretation bias to worry and rumination and establish the need for research investigating the causal role of interpretation bias in maintaining RNT.

Is repetitive negative thinking a transdiagnostic process? A comparison of key processes of RNT in depression, generalized anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and community controls

Background and objectivesThe transdiagnostic view of repetitive negative thinking (RNT) claims that different forms of RNT are characterized by identical processes that are applied to disorder-specific content. The purpose of the study was to test whether the processes of RNT differ across major depression disorder (MDD), generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). MethodsForty-two individuals diagnosed with MDD, 35 individuals with GAD, 41 individuals with OCD, and 35 community controls were asked to think of a typical RNT episode and to rate its processes (core processes; use of mental capacity, unproductivity, abstractness, verbal quality, duration). Ratings were compared across groups using planned contrasts and analysis of variance. ResultsAll individuals with a clinical diagnosis rated the key processes of RNT and avoidance function of RNT as higher than healthy controls. There were no differences between individuals diagnosed with MDD, GAD or OCD on key processes and avoidance function of RNT. LimitationsResults are based on retrospective self-reports, which might restrict validity of the measurements. ConclusionsData support the transdiagnostic hypothesis of RNT. Transdiagnostic prevention and intervention techniques seem highly recommendable given these findings.

Worry and rumination: do they prolong physiological and affective recovery from stress?

ABSTRACTBackground: Anxiety and depression have been linked to repetitive negative self-regulation styles in the form of worry and rumination respectively. Following predictions of the metacognitive model [Wells, A., & Matthews, G. (1994). Attention and emotion: A clinical perspective. Hove: Erlbaum], the current study compared the effect on recovery from stress of three strategies: worry, rumination, and distraction using a stress exposure paradigm. It was predicted that worry and/or rumination would be associated with delayed recovery on physiological and/or self-report indices when compared to distraction.Method: Fifty-four participants were randomly assigned to one of the self-regulation conditions and then completed a modified version of the Trier Social Stress Test [TSST; Kirschbaum, C., Pirke, K. M., & Hellhammer, D. H. (1993). The “TSST” – A tool for investigating psychobiological stress responses in a laboratory setting. Neuropsychobiology, 28, 76–81. doi:10.1159/000119004]. Skin conductance and negative affect (NA) measurements were obtained at six different time points.Results: Skin conductance indicated a prolonged recovery in the rumination condition when compared with the distraction condition. Individuals in the worry condition reported an immediate-delayed recovery from stress marked by higher NA scores in comparison to the distraction condition.Conclusions: These findings may provide important insights into the effects of different forms of repetitive negative thinking on physiological and psychological recovery from stress. The different response patterns observed are discussed within the context of the metacognitive model.

Psychometric Qualities of Turkish Version of Perseverative Thinking Questionnaire (PTQ)

Repetitive negative thinking (RNT) is an umbrella term that refers to an individual’s tendency to have negative thoughts in an uncontrollable and repetitive manner regardless of their content and temporal focus. RNT is suggested to be a transdiagnostic factor that may be associated with vulnerability for many different psychological disorders. The aim of the present study is to examine the psychometric qualities of Perseverative Thinking Questionnaire (PTQ), which is a scale that assesses non-disorder-specific form of RNT. The data was gathered from 446 Turkish individuals between the ages of 18 and 58 years through a web based data collection method. In addition to PTQ, the participants also completed questionnaires that measure worry, rumination, anxiety, depression, and thought suppression. Two models were tested, and CFA revealed a better fit for the 3-factor model. Results indicated that the scale has satisfactory levels of internal consistency, split-half reliability, and test–retest reliability. Further, correlation analyses showed moderate correlations with measures of worry, rumination, anxiety, and depression; which is indicative of satisfactory levels of both convergent and concurrent validity. In sum, Turkish version of PTQ is a psychometrically sound measure that researchers can utilize in research focusing on transdiagnostic processes.

Concreteness of idiographic worry and anticipatory processing

Background and objectivesWorry and anticipatory processing are forms of repetitive negative thinking (RNT) that are associated with maladaptive characteristics and negative consequences. One key maladaptive characteristic of worry is its abstract nature (Goldwin & Behar, 2012; Stöber & Borkovec, 2002). Several investigations have relied on inductions of worry that are social-evaluative in nature, which precludes distinctions between worry and RNT about social-evaluative situations. The present study examined similarities and distinctions between worry and anticipatory processing on potentially important maladaptive characteristics. MethodsParticipants (N = 279) engaged in idiographic periods of uninstructed mentation, worry, and anticipatory processing and provided thought samples during each minute of each induction. Thought samples were assessed for concreteness, degree of verbal-linguistic activity, and degree of imagery-based activity. ResultsBoth worry and anticipatory processing were characterized by reduced concreteness, increased abstraction of thought over time, and a predominance of verbal-linguistic activity. However, worry was more abstract, more verbal-linguistic, and less imagery-based relative to anticipatory processing. Finally, worry demonstrated reductions in verbal-linguistic activity over time, whereas anticipatory processing demonstrated reductions in imagery-based activity over time. LimitationsWorry was limited to non-social topics to distinguish worry from anticipatory processing, and may not represent worry that is social in nature. Generalizability may also be limited by use of an undergraduate sample. ConclusionsResults from the present study provide support for Stöber's theory regarding the reduced concreteness of worry, and suggest that although worry and anticipatory processing share some features, they also contain characteristics unique to each process.

Are Rumination and Worry Two Sides of the Same Coin? A Structural Equation Modelling Approach

Worry and rumination are two types of Repetitive Negative Thinking (RNT) that have been shown to be related to the development and maintenance of emotional problems. Whereas these two forms of RNT have traditionally been regarded as distinct and differentially related to psychopathology, researchers have recently argued that worry and rumination share the same process and show a very similar relationship to different forms of psychopathology. In a series of three studies, we employed a structural equation modelling approach to compare these competing hypotheses. Results showed that a bi-factor model (representing RNT by one latent factor with two uncorrelated method factors) provided a better fit to the data than a two-factor model (with worry and rumination represented by separate factors). In addition, the shared variance within the bi-factor model fully accounted for changes in symptom levels of depression and anxiety in two prospective studies. These findings support a transdiagnostic account of RNT. Implications for theory, measurement and clinical practice are discussed.