Formation Of International Organizations Research Articles

Imperial cooperation at the margins of Europe: the European Commission of the Danube, 1856–65

This article deals with the work of the European Commission of the Danube (ECD) during the first two decades of its activity in the aftermath of the Crimean War. It focuses on the early stage formation of international organizations in the mid-nineteenth century when river commissions were the first organizations that issued supranational regulations and had their own bureaucracies. In this context, I argue that the ECD became a testing ground for new types of inter-imperial cooperation. First, the ECD became a site where hydraulic expertise from all over Europe was gathered and analysed. As a consequence, this exchange among the representatives of different empires and of different sub-fields of expertise generated new technical knowledge and made the ECD a space for cross-imperial knowledge production. Second, in 1865, the ECD adopted a Public Act that codified navigation rules in the Danube Delta. These regulations were among the first upholding a supranational settlement. Furthermore, the document exemplifies how such a supranational agreement was implemented through a joint imperial intervention against the authority of the Ottoman Empire, the only territorial power.

Aspekty globalizacyjne działalności Światowej Organizacji Turystyki we współczesnych stosunkach międzynarodowych

The features of the emergence of globalization trends and the main ways of their influence on the formation of international organizations are analyzed in this article. The UNWTO activities in current globalization processes are highlighted.

International law and United Nations

Along with centuries-lasting open military pretensions of world superpowers, modern diplomacy has developed, as beginning a war, as well as coming to peace demanded political activity which resulted, first in signing, and then coming into effect of international documents, on the basis of which, a foundation for the modern international order has been cast. Further on, by the formation of international organizations, codification has been allowed, as well as a progressive development of international law. Additionally, in the sense of preserving international peace and security, first the League of Nations was formed, and following the ending of World War II, the UN. Generally, the functioning of the United Nation's organs, has been regulated by legal rules, however political goals, tendencies, and mechanisms which the member states are using determine greatly the activity above all of the Security Council, but furthermore of the General Assembly, as a plenary organ. Nevertheless, the achieved results of the Commission for International Law in the meaning of creation of international conventions, as well as state adhering to the same, present unassailable achievements in the sense of development of international law. On the other hand, tendencies of motion of international relationships are aimed at establishing a multi-polar system in the international community. Today, the political scene is assuming a new appearance, by which the nearly built international system is already awaiting further progressive development.

The Formation of International Organizations and India: A Historical Study

AbstractAs the clash of aspirations increased among European countries, a European ‘civil war’ started in 1914, which engulfed the whole world. With all the terrible destruction and loss of life, it was felt that an international organization must be established to avert war in future. At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, the British government succeeded in gaining separate representation for its dominions, including India. This created a rather anomalous situation, since a dependency of a foreign power, a colony which could not control its internal affairs, was accepted as a sovereign state by an international treaty. Europe had hardly recovered from the First World War in the late 1920s when it drifted towards a second holocaust in 1939. India became a founding member of the United Nations in 1945, even though it was still under British rule, participating in the historic founding conference. But Indian national public opinion was neither very hopeful nor enthusiastic about the conference on the new international organization. Not only India, which was not even independent at that time, but Asian countries as such played a very small and insignificant role in the formulation of the UN Charter.

Special aspects of severe head injury: recent developments

Trauma in general, and head injury in particular, is the most frequent cause of mortality and morbidity in those aged up to 45 years. Outcome from severe head injury depends on the nature and severity of the primary lesion, and the manifestations of secondary brain damage of extra- and intracranial origin. The most important sequela is cerebral ischaemia resulting from intracranial hypertension caused by, for example, traumatic brain swelling or intracranial haemorrhage and/or systemic complications, of which arterial hypotension is the most significant. Because treatment so far is limited in principle to general symptomatic measures, continuing improvements in patient management is required on a comprehensive basis. In this context, major efforts are being made all over the world, not only to assess the current efficacy of, for example, logistics, organization and patient management in severe head injury, but also towards development of a consensus aimed at standardizing management and treatment procedures. With regard to the predominant influence of secondary ischaemia of the brain, recent experimental and clinical pathophysiological studies focus on the quality of cerebral blood flow, including the intriguing phenomenon of post-traumatic vasospasm. Other research objectives are concerned with the role of cytokines, leucocyte-endothelial interactions and molecular genetics in severe head injury (e.g. illuminated by the emerging role of the apolipoprotein E gene). Finally, the formation of international organizations, the American and European Brain Injury Consortium, is noteworthy. Although their primary objective is the development of guidelines for clinical trials, future objectives are conceivably more far spread and influential. It can be hoped, therefore, that the unacceptably poor outcome from severe head injury until now can be improved. Moreover, alleged management discrepancies between up-to-date trauma centres and rural hospitals may be eliminated.