Formal Volunteering Research Articles

Volunteering behavioral declines amid personal and organizational upheaval: Recruitment, retention, and barriers in Australia

ABSTRACT Volunteers have faced recent social disruptions which have brought about a new wave of barriers to wash over survivors of an already declining number of formal volunteers in Australia. How the “environmental jolt” of recent social disruption has played out for volunteering is important to understand because less is known about how organizational responses have interacted with changing individual volunteer motives and meanings in the volunteering context. Understanding the impact of this environmental jolt of recent social disruption on volunteering is crucial, especially considering the implications for well-being in communities of volunteers.

Workforce Configuration in Charity Settings: A Forward-Looking Approach

Problem definition: Volunteers, the primary workforce for many charities, represent a complex labor pool; they are unreliable and exhibit substantial heterogeneity in both performance and affinity to the organization. Additionally, many volunteers engage not only to contribute but also to immerse themselves in a volunteering experience that, if rewarding, can inspire them to become future donors. However, practical approaches to volunteer management commonly neglect these traits and the consequential impact that tactical decision-making can have on nurturing potential future donations. Methodology/results: Building on a previous study, we propose a forward-looking volunteer scheduling model that accounts for the heterogeneity among volunteers, mitigates both understaffing and overstaffing costs, and explicitly correlates individual time contribution with their monetary donations. We provide analytical solutions when the charity can reliably estimate distributions (e.g., uniform distribution) from data and suggest a distribution-free method to offer actionable insights where data are limited or uncertain. Managerial implications: At the strategic level, by viewing volunteers as potential donors, the optimal staffing strategy balances meeting the charity’s labor needs and maximizing volunteers’ satisfaction, as this satisfaction influences their likelihood of becoming future donors. We show that charities could avert substantial losses by adopting an integrative approach, thereby challenging conventional organizational structures that compartmentalize volunteer and donor management. Our model suggests that building robust data infrastructures can significantly advance the charity’s core mission. Paradoxically, efforts to increase labor productivity may inadvertently undermine this objective. At the operational level, we provide an Excel-based decision support tool and a decision-tree framework to navigate optimal policies, determining when and how a charity can rely on episodic (less reliable) volunteers. Our results confirm that reducing uncertainty in volunteer turnout benefits charities. However, we also find that when labor value is low, episodic volunteers are preferred, whereas formal (reliable) volunteers are favored when labor value is high. Supplemental Material: The online appendix is available at https://doi.org/10.1287/msom.2022.0363 .

Well-being in middle-aged and older adults who volunteer: a qualitative network analysis

Objective Social participation is essential for the health of older adults. Formal volunteering can reduce loneliness and is associated with numerous positive health outcomes. Older adults have limited resources to meet their social and well-being needs. We explore factors contributing to the well-being of middle-aged and older adults who engage in formal volunteering using a qualitative social network approach. Methods Between 2022 and 2023, qualitative semi-structured interviews were conducted with 28 members of social clubs in Germany, aged 45–80 (mean age 62 years). Thirteen participants were retired. Eight interviewees were female and twenty were male. Participants created unstructured egocentric network maps of individuals or organisations important to their well-being. Participants reflected on their social networks using these maps, which allowed for deeper insights into changing network dynamics. The data were analysed using thematic analysis. Results We developed six themes: intrapersonal, interpersonal and social network characteristics affecting well-being, self-fulfilment, feeling indispensable and unfulfilled expectations. Formal social participation, particularly through volunteering, contributed significantly to the well-being. Conclusion Formal volunteering can aid successful role substitution and compensation, especially after retirement. This may prevent loneliness and increase well-being in older age.

Barriers to formal volunteering among married Qatari youth

Barriers to formal volunteering among married Qatari youth

Discretion and Obligation Across Volunteering and Caring: Shining Light on Non-Voluntary Carers in the Retiring Encore Segment

This paper seeks to understand pathways into volunteering in the encore life stage and contribute to policy interventions. There is a need for more clarity regarding the delineation of formal volunteering from informal volunteering and from adult kin-caring. A sample of 4,464 respondents from the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia survey was analysed using a set of logistic regressions, to explore three frames of volunteering —substitution (of former work time), complementary focus (gradual adjustment to less paid work or other change in personal circumstance), and obligation (compulsion to provide care or unpaid labour). Results indicate that formal volunteering was largely discretionary and a result of substitution, that informal volunteering, particularly caring for children, was complementary and partly obligatory, and the area of greatest potential policy intervention, adult kin caring was found to be largely obligatory.

Collaborative governance and effectiveness during emergency response actions in Norway

The challenges of emergency response often reflect wicked problems that transcend conventional public policy and require networked strategies. This article examines how the combination of hierarchical and network elements in the Norwegian model of “collaborative emergency preparedness” affects emergency outcomes. This model supports formal volunteer and public collaboration and enables a mix of command and network coordination. A survey of more than 1500 volunteers from Norway's major emergency response organizations shows that procedures, leadership, communication and technology significantly influence the quality of coordination and perceived effectiveness. Trust in the police and the volunteer's own organization also influences perceived effectiveness, depending on who is leading the operation. The results are, to a large extent, consistent with our integrated theoretical framework, showing that both formal and informal elements influence the response effectiveness in a hybrid governance system.

Explaining a decline in volunteering in the UK

This discussion paper considers reasons for a decline in formal volunteering in the UK, which include: a trend away from collective to individual social activity, an increase in inequality, a reduction in available time, and a crowding out of social values by market values. It then considers if this decline could be reversed.

Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth volunteering behaviors: Evidence from Northern Ireland

AbstractYouth volunteering is associated with a host of individual benefits, in addition to the service provided to organizations and communities. However, little is known about the volunteering behaviors of lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) youth. This is a large and growing lacuna in the literature, as recent demographic surveys show that younger people are far more likely to identify as LGBTQ than those in older generations across many countries. Using Hustinx et al.'s Inequality in Volunteering model as a theoretical lens and analyzing survey data from 16‐year‐olds in Northern Ireland, this research explores whether LGB youth experience inequalities in volunteering activities relative to their non‐LGB peers. Measures of volunteering activities include propensity to volunteer in formal and informal settings, motivations, location for formal volunteering, and experiences while volunteering. Findings indicate that LGB youth are less likely to volunteer in sports or religiously oriented organizations, more likely to volunteer in order to expand social networks, and less likely to report feeling appreciated by the organizations they volunteer with. I discuss implications for philanthropic organizations wanting to move towards creating inclusive environments for LGBTQ youth volunteers and call for increased investment in data collection within gender and sexual minority populations.

Balancing acts of kindness: Reassessing the relationship between informal helping and formal volunteering

Although time is a finite resource, much sociological research suggests a positive association between engagement in informal helping activities and formal volunteering. However, it remains unclear whether this relationship is causal and, if so, in which direction the causality runs. To address these issues, I draw on two-wave panel data from Denmark. Using a cross-lagged panel model, I find no evidence that formal volunteering hours affect informal helping activities. However, in the reverse direction, I find evidence of a right-skewed inverse U-shaped relationship. Specifically, the time individuals dedicate to formal volunteering marginally increases with time allocated to informal helping activities, but only as long as their informal helping obligations remain modest. However, once these informal helping obligations reach approximately 20 hours, the time individuals spend on formal volunteering decreases with informal helping hours. These findings suggest that even exceptionally helpful individuals, often referred to as “super-helpers,” must balance their acts of kindness and their available time and energy. Moreover, I argue that while many people are motivated to engage in formal volunteering to benefit others, those with family and friends requiring assistance tend to prioritize these responsibilities before volunteering.

How Helping You Helps Me: A Longitudinal Analysis of Volunteering and Pathways to Quality of Life Among Older Adults in Singapore.

Volunteering is known to be associated with well-being among older adults. However, less is known about the psychosocial pathways (e.g., personal mastery, social support) through which this occurs, with past studies tending to rely on cross-sectional data, which are susceptible to selection biases. This study, using longitudinal data, investigates how formal and informal volunteering may affect older adults' quality of life through personal mastery, perceived social support, and received social support. Data are from 2 waves of a nationally representative study of older adults aged 60 years and older in Singapore, conducted between 2016 and 2019 (N = 2,887). We estimate indirect effects using a 2-wave mediation model, relying on bootstrapped confidence intervals for significance testing. We find indirect effects from volunteering to quality of life through perceived social support and personal mastery, but not through received social support. While any type (formal/informal) and frequency (regular/nonregular) of volunteering promotes quality of life through perceived social support, indirect effects through personal mastery are limited to regular volunteering in formal settings. Results provide longitudinal evidence for perceived social support as a key pathway from volunteering to quality of life. Volunteering may be an effective way to improve quality of life by helping older adults feel more supported, even if it may not affect the actual help that they receive. Further, a structured and sustainable environment may be required for volunteering to promote personal mastery (and through it, quality of life) among older volunteers.

Study identifies key factors influencing giving and volunteerism

The report, “Understanding generosity: A look at what influences volunteering and giving in the United States,” follows up on data showing that in 2021, the formal volunteer rate—the percentage of adults who do unpaid work through or for an organization—saw its largest decline since the U.S. government began collecting data on volunteering. Meanwhile, 2022 logged a rare decline in the amount donated to charity, when adjusted for inflation.

CARE WORK, SCIENCE BROKERING, AND CAREER MOTIVATIONS: HOW HISPANIC/LATINX YOUNG ADULTS IN STEM EXPRESSED SOCIAL AGENCY DURING THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC

Given Hispanic/Latinx students often express altruistic motivations for pursuing STEM careers, tapping into social agency may be a key mechanism through which Hispanic/Latinx students can be recruited and retained in the STEM fields in which they remain severely underrepresented. Yet, the ways in which Hispanic/Latinx young adults express and exercise this commitment may not be fully captured by traditional measures of social agency, such as formal volunteering or voting. In this study we report findings from eight focus groups we conducted in 2021 with Hispanic/ Latinx college graduates who had been part of a STEM postsecondary research program at a Hispanic-serving institution. We explore how participants articulated and exercised social agency in relation to family, community, and their STEM careers during the COVID-19 pandemic. We find these students often expressed social agency through informal types of civic engagement, including performing care work for their family members, as well as serving in a role we term "science brokering," in which participants worked to translate scientific research into language that was digestible to family members and others in their communities. Finally, we find many of our participants' commitment to social agency is influencing their career decisions in multiple directions. We argue definitions of social agency should be expanded to include informal forms of civic engagement, such as care work and science brokering, to more fully capture how Hispanic/Latinx young adults and other underrepresented groups in the STEM pipeline might express and exercise social agency.

Developing and Testing Tools for Measuring the Emotional Dimension of Volunteering

Volunteering is an essential part of society. It is considered to be a complex phenomenon which is potentially associated with emotional dilemmas. Emotions of volunteers are crucial for their activity. However, their scientific investigation is lacking, especially when it comes to the methodological aspect. This article presents the results of the methodological development of quantitative indicators of the emotional dimension of volunteering. Using the example of an online survey of 274 social, environmental, event, sports, animal welfare and public safety volunteers, the obtained indicators are tested by searching for a connection with the factors of volunteers’ emotions. As part of our methodology, we have developed new emotional indicators of volunteer activity. Based on the results of the study, we proposed such indicators as valence index, emotional burnout, emotional nature and emotional intelligence. The valence index considers two types (two valences) of volunteers’ emotions — positive and negative. Emotional burnout is expressed as a factor analysis model — the causes of burnout. Emotional intelligence is presented as a summary indicator of emotional processes — for instance, exchange, control, etc. The nature of emotions is represented by interval semantic differentials when building a cluster analysis model. By testing the obtained methods, it turns out that formal and informal volunteers have equally high emotional intelligence and are equally susceptible to burnout. The lowest values of the valence index are found among event volunteers, the highest — among public safety volunteers. With age, the chances of burning out decrease with the presence of constant joy and fun, increase due to excessive pity, and decrease due to compassion fatigue. Compared to men, women are more prone to experiencing emotions: both positive and negative, that is, they have a higher valence index and emotional intelligence.

Organizational or Individual? The Effect of Social Networks on Volunteer Activities in Japan

This paper investigates what kinds of social networks nudge volunteering by applying social network analysis. Unique Japanese data with various social network variables are used to explore the association between formal and informal social networks and volunteering. The results show that “attending meetings of neighborhood associations” and “enrollment in a membership association,” which involve forms of formal social networks, are positively correlated with the probability of both “any volunteering” and five kinds of volunteering. “Frequency of meals with friends,” an indicator of informal social networks, has statistical significance for volunteering. Notably, friendships, even if meals are infrequent, are enough to lead to volunteering opportunities. The author thus concludes that greater social participation can be fostered by promoting not only organizational assistance but also friendships.

Does Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Explain Volunteer Time Allocations? An Exploration of Motivational Time Allowances Using the American Time Use Survey

This study examines whether there is an optimal set point along Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of needs associated with disaggregated forms of volunteerism. Taniguchi’s (2012) study examined major life domains (e.g., work, education, and religion) for associations with formal and informal volunteerism. An alternative approach is to include life domains with variables measuring motivational concerns to better identify time allocation patterns for disaggregated volunteerism. This study analyzed the results of 9,435 time diaries recorded on the 2019 American Time Use Survey (ATUS). The time allocated to formal and informal volunteerism associates with intermediate belongingness concerns. There is no association between time spent on self-esteem and self-actualization concerns and informal volunteering. Tertiary education as a baseline measure for self-actualization shares a weaker association than belonging with formal volunteering. The data suggest that research into maximizing formal volunteerism may be searching at the wrong point at self-actualization. Implications are discussed for motivating volunteerism.

Retaining public health volunteers beyond COVID-19.

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to a change in people's volunteering behaviours; participation has increased in informal volunteering (giving unpaid help to those who are not a relative) while decreasing in formal volunteering (unpaid help to groups or clubs). There is an interest from stakeholders who have experienced increased participation in maintaining the positive patterns of volunteering, aligning with National Health Service (NHS) objectives and realising benefits in a wider public health context. This research uses a local COVID-19 public health volunteering programme case study to explore the volunteer's journey and perspective using volunteers' reported experiences to consider the potential for volunteer retention and role expansion into other public health issues beyond the COVID-19 pandemic. Recruitment was undertaken by Birmingham City Council Public Health Team via the COVID-19 Community Champions programme mailing list. Semi-structured focus group discussions, one-to-one interviews and email interviews were conducted with volunteers. Data were analysed through directed thematic analysis using an iteratively developed coding frame. Data were collected from three focus group discussions, four interviews, and one email interview involving a total of 16 participants. Six themes were identified: volunteer motivations and expectations; volunteer management; programme organisation; feeling valued; continued need for role, and interest in new responsibilities. Our findings indicate that the factors which are conducive to volunteer recruitment, retention and re-purposing were: maintaining the original terms of engaging with the volunteering opportunity (including retaining the original brief and remit), adjusting these through consultative processes with an emphasis on seeking permission from the volunteers already involved and ensuring a reliable and consistent management and support structure. While some of the learning is specific to the local volunteer programme in question and the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, there are lessons that can be generalised to other scenarios and settings.

How volunteering shapes immigrants’ social identity: insights from foreign-born formal and informal volunteers

This study explores how formal versus informal volunteering is related to immigrants’ identities in the US. We analyse 24 semi-structured interviews to investigate the identity-related influences of immigrant volunteering within and outside nonprofits’ auspices. We base our data analysis on the theoretical framework of individual mobility and a conceptual framework consisting of social identity theory and role identity theory. While past research has addressed how voluntary work affects immigrants’ social identity, we offer a comparative outlook by investigating how the associations differ for formal versus informal volunteering. Our findings show that immigrants who volunteer formally apply their immigrant identity to emphasise the integrative qualities of their volunteer role in US society, and that immigrants who volunteer informally apply their volunteer role towards the preservation of their immigrant identity.

Social Capital and Formal Volunteering Among Family and Unpaid Caregivers of Older Adults.

Using data from 1745 caregivers in the National Study of Caregiving (2017), this study explores the connection between caregiving and formal volunteering by identifying the relationship between social capital and formal volunteering among family and other unpaid caregivers of older adults. In addition, this study examines the representative prevalence of formal volunteering in caregivers. We conducted logistic regression models along with established volunteerism correlates from the prior research literature. Approximately a quarter of caregivers participated in volunteering (25.4%). Being male, having higher educational attainment, being a spouse, living separately from the care recipient, caregiving for multiple care recipients, having a better quality of relationship with the care recipient, having better psychological well-being, receiving more social support, attending religious services, and participating in group activity were positively associated with formal volunteer participation. Findings underscore the role of both human and social capital, including the caregiving context, in formal volunteering among caregivers.

The everyday reality of nature volunteering: an empirical exploration of reasons to stay and reasons to quit

Volunteers are crucial for ecological research and nature conservation. However, despite calls in the volunteering literature to look beyond recruitment only and pay more attention to retaining and supporting volunteers, nature volunteers’ experiences have received little empirical attention. Using open survey questions among a diverse sample of formal and informal Dutch nature volunteers (N = 3775), we present a qualitative analysis of the factors that could cause nature volunteers to quit, and what keeps them going. Furthermore, we relate these to the three fundamental human needs for self-determination (autonomy, competence and relatedness). We find that reasons to quit nature volunteering include difficult situations (e.g. conflicts and tensions), volunteers’ personal circumstances, and insufficient support or appreciation. Respondents are motivated to continue because of pleasure in the activities and the people they meet, but also by a connection with nature, and the role of nature volunteering in living a meaningful and fulfilling life.

Understanding the volunteer motivations, barriers and experiences of urban and rural youth: a mixed-methods analysis

There is a growing need to promote volunteerism among youth, given the declining rates across Western countries, and the societal and individual benefits gained through community engagement. Research has focused on individual predictors of volunteerism, but little is known about the role of context, such as urban–rural differences when examining comparable cohorts. Using data from a Canadian survey and semi-structured interviews, we documented differences in volunteer motivations and barriers between urban and rural youth. Survey results showed that rural youth volunteered more hours if they had friends who volunteered, whereas urban youth invested more hours if they were motivated to explore their strengths. Qualitative findings highlighted the importance of networks as levers to formal and informal volunteering, especially for rural youth, and the unique social and structural barriers related to volunteerism depending on place of residence. Contextual factors should be considered when designing strategies to recruit and retain young volunteers.