Formal Kinship Care Research Articles

Outcomes for children and young people growing up in kinship care in Scotland: A population-level data linkage study

ObjectivesThe number of children and young people living in kinship care (living separately from their parents with a family friend/relative) in Scotland has increased consistently since 2010. This study aims to explore outcomes for children and young people in kinship care in terms of their health, education, and care journeys.
 MethodsThis population-wide data linkage study will utilise data on all children and young people who have been placed in formal kinship care from 2008 onwards. The datasets linked for this study are:
 
 Looked After Children
 Child Protection
 Health Visiting
 Educational attainment, attendances, absences and exclusion
 Children’s Hearings data
 
 Through descriptive analysis the study will provide insight into the experiences and outcomes of children and young people in kinship care. Where appropriate, comparisons will be drawn with the wider care population and the general population of children and young people in Scotland.
 ResultsData will be presented which highlight:
 
 Levels of kinship care usage in Scotland, and how this varies regionally and over time.
 The routes into kinship care in terms of child protection concerns and legal reasons data.
 How children fare while in kinship care – specifically in terms of their childhood development, placement stability and educational attainment/engagement.
 The pathways out of formal kinship care, and whether these differ over time.
 
 Full results will be available for publication at the 2023 ADR UK conference.
 Conclusion This is the first population-wide study on outcomes for children and young people living in kinship care within Scotland. It is hoped that insight arising from this work will aid local authorities, government and others in meeting the needs of the steadily increasing number of children living in formal kinship care.

The use of mental health services among children in kinship care: an application of Andersen’s Behavioral Model for Health Services Use

ABSTRACT This study examined predisposing, enabling, and need factors associated with mental health (MH) services, the use of school-based, medical-based, and specialty MH services, and the use of ≥2 MH services among children in kinship care. We analyzed a sample of children in kinship care (N = 718) selected from wave II of the National Survey on Child and Adolescent Well-Being II. Results indicated that child’s age, gender, ethnicity (being Hispanic) and clinically significant internalizing and externalizing problems were associated with their use of MH services. Furthermore, results indicated being Hispanic, older children, living in poverty primarily with male caregivers, and having clinically significant externalizing problems were associated with higher odds of receiving school-based MH services, while being a girl and living with caregivers with better physical health were associated with lower odds of receiving medical-based MH services. Experiencing household challenges and living with caregivers with better MH were associated with the odds of receiving specialty MH services. Experiencing household challenges, being Hispanic and older children, and living in formal kinship care were associated with higher odds of receiving ≥2 MH services. These findings suggest the importance of providing accessible and diverse MH services to children in kinship care.

Academic Trajectories of Children in Formal and Informal Kinship Care.

The academic achievement places children on a positive trajectory for their lifespan. The aim of this study was to examine the academic trajectories of children in out-of-home care (OOCH) and whether kinship care has a protective effect relative to nonkin foster care. The sample analyzed for this study consists of 519,306 racially diverse youth in North Carolina schools 8 to 11 years old in the school year 2009-2010 (e.g., 27% African American, 12% Latinx, 53% White). Four longitudinal administrative data sources were merged to create this unique sample. Multilevel modeling revealed no difference between formal and non-OOHC, but showed differences between nonkin foster, informal, and non-OOHC. Children's academic performance who reside in formal kinship care is similar to children in non-OOHC.

Creating ‘Deep Knowledge’ and Transformative Change: A Critical Social Work Approach to Researching Formal Kinship Care

Abstract In a context of rapidly changing social and economic conditions and increasing practice complexity, critical research perspectives can create in-depth explanatory knowledge for social work practice. Drawing on a broader knowledge base, these approaches provide a comprehensive view of social phenomena and the causes of personal and social harm. They also offer a framework to guide ethical intervention based on principles of collaboration, social justice and social transformation. The aim of this article is to demonstrate how critically oriented research can deliver useful and actionable knowledge directly to the field and promote transformative change. The exemplar presented here is a critical participatory study exploring formal kinship care in Victoria, Australia. The research partnered actively with service users and practitioners, with mixed methods utilised and data analysed for content and themes. Findings revealed dissonant assumptions in relation to roles and responsibilities as an underlying cause of care and practice issues. New understandings and practical solutions for the field were generated by exploring study findings with stakeholders. This application of a critical research approach to the field of formal kinship care establishes that the method can provide a coherent, effective and ethical framework for inquiry.

How did kinship care emerge as a significant form of placement for children in care? A comparative study of the experience in Ireland and Scotland

A notable development in child welfare provision in recent decades has been growth in certain jurisdictions of formal kinship care as a type of placement for children needing ‘out of home’ care. This trend raises the question of why formal kinship care has emerged in such a marked way in this period in some contexts. This paper sets out to explore this issue by investigating the emergence and development of formal kinship care in two neighboring jurisdictions in Europe where it now accounts for a substantial proportion of all care placements in Scotland and Ireland. The paper sets out a conceptual framework that considers the emergence of formal kinship care against the backdrop of the overall care systems in both jurisdictions and the wider set of societal kinship care practices relating to children. It traces key policy developments in the evolution of formal kinship care in both systems. It reviews policy challenges and influences that may help to account for the emergence and current relative importance of formal kinship care. This comparative case study aims to contribute to international debates about the development of formal kinship care.

The relationships between child well-being, caregiving stress, and social engagement among informal and formal kinship care families

Children in kinship care families are increasing in number. These children can be vulnerable due to adverse experiences before the placement and exposure to risk factors associated with social isolation in kinship care families. However, the well-being of children in kinship care families and associated factors are understudied. This study investigates child health and psychological well-being among kinship care families and associated factors: caregiving stress and social engagement of kinship caregivers. Data from 1623 kinship care families in the 1999 and 2002 National Survey of America's Families were analyzed to examine whether caregiving stress and child well-being are related and whether social engagement moderates this relationship. Kinship family type was also examined as a potential moderator. Findings reveal that caregiving stress is related to children's higher levels of behavioral problems, but is not significantly related to children's health. Social engagement is found to be a significant moderator; specifically, kinship caregiver weekly engagement in volunteer activities buffers the negative effects of caregiving stress on children's behavior for younger children (aged 6–11). Informal kinship families are found to be a more protective caregiving environment for older children (aged 12–17) to adjust the negative effects of caregiving stress. The significant findings are expected to contribute to field practices with kinship care families and to child welfare research on child well-being and social support among kinship care families.

A Four-Nation Comparison of Kinship Care in the UK: The Relationship between Formal Kinship Care and Deprivation

The practice of extended family and friends helping to care for children when their parents are unable to is an enduring tradition in many cultures. Kinship care provides the largest proportion of out of home care in Western society but many of these carers experience poverty and deprivation, and do not receive comparable levels of support, financial or professional, to other placement types. This study provides UK evidence for the relationship between kinship care and deprivation and examines how the welfare state frames kinship care in policy and practice.

The Utilization of Non-Institutional Resources in Social Work for Cases of Child Abuse Focusing on the Family Group Conference and Formal Kinship Care

The Utilization of Non-Institutional Resources in Social Work for Cases of Child Abuse Focusing on the Family Group Conference and Formal Kinship Care

Are children safer with kin? A comparison of maltreatment risk in out-of-home care

Safety, or the absence of maltreatment, is the primary mandate of the child protection services (CPS) system, both for children living at home and those living away from home. Yet, few research studies have examined maltreatment in out-of-home care due to the low incidence rate and data limitations. This study used statewide administrative data to estimate the association between placement type and experiencing a maltreatment investigation or substantiation in out-of-home care. Over 6% of informal TANF-funded kinship placements experienced an investigation alleging maltreatment by an out-of-home caregiver, compared with just over 3% for formal kinship care and non-relative foster care. However, the monthly risk of maltreatment was lowest in informal kinship care because these placements tended to endure longer before maltreatment occurred. Substantiated maltreatment during an out-of-home placement was rare across all placement types. For both investigated and substantiated maltreatment, risk was highest in the first 3months.

Socioemotional Problems Among Young Children in Out-of-Home Care: A Comparison of Kinship and Foster Care Placement

This study examined socioemotional problems among children age 0 to 5 years in formal kinship and foster care across a northeastern state. Findings revealed that more than one third of children in both types of care showed socioemotional problems. More children were placed in kinship care when they lived in rural settings, were biracial, or spent time in the neonatal intensive care (NICU) after birth. Unique child and maltreatment characteristics predicted socioemotional problems scores for each placement type. Among children in kinship care, being biracial, spending time in the NICU, and being referred to child welfare for either caregiver substance abuse or neglect were related to socioemotional problems. When children were in foster care, spending time in the NICU, being referred to child welfare for child neglect, or being referred for intimate partner violence were all related to socioemotional problems. The results have implications for child welfare policy and practice, especially in light of increased efforts to place children with kin.

Kinship Care

Kinship Care

Kinship and Nonrelative Foster Care: The Effect of Placement Type on Child Well‐Being

This study uses a national sample of 1,215 children, ages 6-17, who spent some time in formal kinship or nonrelative foster care to identify the effect of placement type on academic achievement, behavior, and health. Several identification strategies are used to reduce selection bias, including ordinary least squares, change score models, propensity score weighting, and instrumental variables regression. The results consistently estimate a negative effect of kin placements on reading scores, but kin placements appear to have no effect on child health, and findings on children's math and cognitive skills test scores and behavioral problems are mixed. Estimated declines in both academic achievement and behavioral problems are concentrated among children who are lower functioning at baseline.

The ‘dance’ of kinship care in England and Ireland: Navigating a course between regulation and relationships

There has been a significant growth in the use of formal kinship care in the UK and Ireland in the last 20 years. The paper charts some of the reasons for the ‘organic growth’ of kinship care and the multiple dynamics that have shaped this. It shows that kinship care has grown relatively slowly in the more regulated care system of England, compared to the less regulated system in Ireland. Examination of these different trajectories suggests that: where the tendency to regulation is strong the choices of individual family members may also have an impact in response to state provision; cultural differences in the importance of family ties may play a part in decision-making processes; and that variations in levels of regulation and support may impact on the profile of the care system. It also serves to highlight that relationships may be the glue that brings formal kinship placements together and they may also be the glue that holds them together. Regulation (and how it is interpreted on the ground) can influence the climate of choices of the carer to start or keep going, but it cannot determine those choices. Clearly, regulation is required, but it seems wise not to see regulation as all-conquering in terms of influence. ‘Culture’ in a range of senses seems also to play a part. Further comparative study may reveal more about this ‘dance’ of kinship care and its balancing of regulatory and ‘cultural’ factors.

Youth in out-of-home care: Relation of engagement in structured group activities with social and mental health measures

Abstract Prior research suggests that for youth in the general population, involvement in activities improves academic, health and social outcomes, but the impact of these activities on youth in out-of-home care is unknown. This study examines, among youth in foster, formal kinship, and residential care, associations between involvement in structured and unstructured activities and social and mental health measures. Among 134 youth in out-of-home care, only 40% were involved in structured activities, and racial/ethnic minorities and males were even less likely to participate (p ≤ 0.01). More youth reported involvement in general physical activity (76%), which was associated with higher social skills when compared to those not involved in such unstructured activity (b = − 10.4; 95% C.I. = − 18.22, − 2.65, p = 0.09). Youth not involved in structured activities showed poorer performance on measures of loneliness (b = 5.6; 95% C.I. = 1.63, 9.47, p = .006), drug abuse (b = 0.95; 95% C.I. = 0.31, 1.59, p = .004), and depression (b = 3.5; 95% C.I. = .25, 6.76, p = 0.04). Participation in activities, particularly when structured, may help these vulnerable youth to achieve better social relationships and mental health.

Systems of Kinship Care: Enduring Challenges and Emerging Opportunities

In any ongoing caregiving relationship, a relative may act as an agent of a care recipient in the role of family member, patron, steward, or contractual agent. Psychological stresses and sociological strains are created whenever different agency roles and principles are combined to resolve the social dilemma of whether a caregiver will continue to act responsibly on behalf of the interests of the care recipient or defect from this expectation at the recipient's expense. This introduction examines enduring challenges to resolving this dilemma and identifies emerging opportunities to support and sustain the three separate but complementary systems of informal, formal, and permanent kinship care.

Kinship foster care and the risk of juvenile delinquency

Formal kinship care represents the placement of a maltreated or otherwise vulnerable youth in the care and protection of a known relative or adult with a recognized kin bond. The practice of identifying and utilizing kin placements in child welfare has significantly increased over the last two decades. In part, the increased use of kinship care reflects the priorities, preferences, and mechanisms specified in federal legislation. A fairly broad literature demonstrates the value of kin homes in child welfare. Yet significant gaps in the understanding of kin homes remain, especially with regard to youth outcomes across allied service systems. In the current study we use administrative records from a large urban county and propensity score matching to investigate the relationship between kinship care placements in child welfare and the risk of delinquency. The sample (n = 13,396) is diverse and our design is longitudinal in that we follow youth through child welfare and juvenile systems for several years. The results indicate that the relative risk of delinquency is significantly greater for African American and white male adolescents served in kin homes. For Hispanic males and Hispanic females, kin homes are associated with a decreased likelihood of delinquency. There is no kin placement effect associated with African American or white females.

‘It's just like another home, just another family, so it's nae different’ Children's voices in kinship care: a research study about the experience of children in kinship care in Scotland

ABSTRACTGrowing acknowledgement of the importance of the role of kinship carers in caring and supporting children and young people in Scotland has led to a burgeoning of research on this topic. However, most research has tended to focus on the role of kinship carers. A significant gap has been direct studies into the views and experiences of children and young people living with relatives or friends. This paper seeks to address this by drawing on the findings from a small‐scale qualitative collaborative research project with 12 children and young people living in informal and formal kinship care in the Northeast of Scotland. The literature on foster and kinship care is reviewed and key themes identified. The qualitative research data is outlined employing a thematic analysis approach. The key findings are analysed with a view to the potential implications for policy and practice. The paper concludes with proposals for potential future research.

“We Have No Rights, We Get No Help”

Guided by an ecological perspective on family policy, this qualitative study used family life history interviews to document the legal and policy dilemmas faced by 26 grandparent caregivers residing in Montana. Most grandparents ( n = 18) were caring for their grandchildren in informal or private care arrangements. Findings revealed four legal or policy contexts that hindered informal grandparent caregiving, including the lack of a kinship care navigation system, the lack of legal rights, fear of the child welfare system, and disparities between informal and formal kinship care policies. Future policy directions, including expanding subsidized guardianship programs and granting informal grandparent caregivers' legal authority over their grandchildren, are discussed.

Examining the Perceptions of Grandparents who Parent in Formal and Informal Kinship Care

Child welfare workers are increasingly seeking formal kinship placements with grandparents when the child's biological parents can no longer provide a stable environment. Using a non-probability purposive sample (N = 55), this study explores whether or not caregiver well being is effected by the type of kinship care arrangement (formal vs. informal). The findings suggest that grandparents in formal kinship care arrangements experienced feelings of depression less often, were more satisfied with their parenting experiences and were observed to have a greater sense of satisfaction with life. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Kinship Care

Today, kinship care is equal part family tradition and social welfare policy. This volume explores the balance of the two and presents current practice challenges of formal and informal kinship care. It also addresses the seminal role of grandparents as kinship care providers. doi:10.1300/J045v22n03_01.