Beamforming Research Articles

Using of Deep Learning in Beamforming Antenna Array

Digital beamforming (DBF) is a crucial technology for large antenna arrays, offering precise control over beam steering. This research introduces a novel method to enhance millimeter wave transmission by incorporating DBF with long-term memory (LSTM) based deep learning Our system utilizes digital signal processing and LSTM networks to optimize beamforming parameters instead of relying on traditional analog beamforming. The objective is to achieve high spectral efficiency. The methodology is executed in the programming language MATLAB and the obtained simulation outcomes validate a substantial enhancement in the metrics that evaluate performance, thereby demonstrating the potential of combining digital beamforming (DBF) with Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) for forthcoming communication systems. Furthermore, the inclusion of LSTM in the process of digital beamforming presents a comprehensive comprehension of the proposed approach, which imparts valuable insights for advanced communication technologies. To substantiate the efficacy of the technique, several illustrative examples are employed to steer the beam pattern in the desired direction.

Two-Step Adaptive Target Detection Scheme Using Beam-Steering FMCW Radar Sensors

This letter proposes a two-stage adaptive target detection approach using a beam-steered frequency-modulated continuous wave (FMCW) radar sensor. In the first step, coarse estimation was performed using multiple sharped beams, where the presence of a target was determined using only a portion of the sampled beat signals. In the second step, a high-resolution range-Doppler (RD) map was generated using the entire information about the beat signal pertaining to the transmitted beams estimated to contain the target. Angle estimation was accomplished through digital beamforming based on the enhanced RD map. Furthermore, to verify the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm, high-resolution target detection experiments were conducted using a 24-GHz FMCW radar, while complexity reduction was evaluated in terms of the required memory size.

Size-dependent nonlinear dynamics of two-directional functionally graded microbeams in thermal environment under a moving mass

The size-dependent nonlinear dynamics of two-directional functionally graded (2D-FG) microbeams in a thermal environment under a moving mass is studied for the first time in the framework of the refined higher-order shear deformation theory (HSDT) and modified couple stress theory (MCST). The variation of the temperature-dependent material properties in the axial and thickness directions is estimated by the Mori–Tanaka homogenization scheme. Considering the rotary inertia and shear deformation, the nonlinear differential equations of motion, obtained from Hamilton’s principle, are discretized using an enriched beam element. Numerical results determined by the Newmark method in combination with Newton–Raphson iterative procedure confirm the efficiency of the derived beam formulation in predicting the nonlinear dynamics. The enriched beam element, which is derived herein by using hierarchical functions to enrich the conventional shape functions, is capable of furnishing accurate nonlinear dynamic characteristics with fewer elements compared to the conventional one. It is shown that the difference between the dynamic response predicted by the linear analysis and the nonlinear one increases by increasing the temperature, but it decreases by increasing the size scale parameter. The effects of the material gradation, temperature rise and micro-scale parameter on the nonlinear dynamic behavior of the 2D-FG microbeams are studied in detail and highlighted.

A Two-Phase Deep Learning Approach to Link Quality Estimation for Multiple-Beam Transmission

In the multi-user multiple-input-multiple-output (MU-MIMO) beamforming (BF) training defined by the 802.11ay standard, since a single initiator transmits a significant number of action frames to multiple responders, inefficient configuration of the transmit antenna arrays when sending these action frames increases the signaling and latency overheads of MU-MIMO BF training. To configure appropriate transmit antenna arrays for transmitting action frames, the initiator needs to accurately estimate the signal to noise ratios (SNRs) measured at the responders for each configuration of the transmit antenna arrays. In this paper, we propose a two-phase deep learning approach to improve the accuracy of SNR estimation for multiple concurrent beams by reducing the measurement errors of the SNRs for individual single beams when each action frame is transmitted through multiple concurrent beams. Through simulations, we demonstrated that our proposed scheme enabled more responders to successfully receive action frames during MU-MIMO BF training compared to existing schemes.

An accurate and efficient method based on the dynamic stiffness matrix for analyzing wave propagation in defective lattice structures

In this study, we present an efficient and accurate method for analyzing wave propagation in lattice structures with periodic defects, which are composed of three-dimensional (3D) unit cells arranged infinitely in two or three directions, with defects existing periodically along the directions of the arrangement. The unit cell is composed of 3D beams, and the dynamic stiffness formulation of the 3D beam is developed by combining the Timoshenko-Ehrenfest, Rayleigh-Love and torsion theories. Based on the dynamic stiffness matrix, any number or order of natural frequencies of defective lattice structures can be calculated accurately and efficiently using the Wittrick-Williams algorithm. By combining it with the Bloch theorem, the proposed method can be used to calculate the dispersion curves of lattice structures with periodic defects. The accuracy and efficiency of the proposed method are demonstrated through numerical examples. Additionally, the effects of periodic defects in the lattice structures on the bandgap are analyzed.

Dynamic energy efficient resource allocation in multi-user multi-IRS mmWave 6G networks

This study introduces a novel approach for energy-efficient resource allocation in millimeter-wave networks, assisted by multiple intelligent reflecting surfaces (IRS). The proposed framework optimizes the dynamic ON/OFF control and phase shifts of IRS elements, along with beamforming (BF) at access points (AP), under practical constraints. Unlike existing methods, our model enhances energy efficiency (EE) by optimizing a fixed number of ON IRS elements. We present innovative algorithms, including a modified nested fractional programming (NFP) for BF and a simulated annealing (SA)-type algorithm for phase shift and element selection. Our results demonstrate a 6.5-fold improvement in EE under a realistic scenario compared to benchmark, highlighting the effectiveness of our approach as a crucial strategy for future 6G networks.

A single dual-frequency reflective metasurface for simultaneous multi-mode orbital angular momentum multiplexing

In this paper, we propose a dual-frequency reflective metasurface that utilizes geometric phase to achieve multiple modes of orbital angular momentum (OAM). The metasurface consists of two metal layers and a dielectric layer sandwiched between them, with independent control of amplitude and phase modulation at two frequency points by rotating the outer split ring and inner cross structures on the top layer of the metasurface. When circularly polarized (CP) terahertz waves impinge on the metasurface, it is possible to achieve a single-beam normal reflection, single-beam anomalous reflection, and dual-beam reflection in the form of OAM vortex beams. Specifically, for right-hand circular polarization (RCP) incidence, at the frequency of 140 GHz, its vertical reflection is the OAM beam of mode +2, and at the frequency of 200 GHz, its vertical reflection is the OAM beam of mode +1; for left-hand circular polarization (LCP) incidence, at the frequency of 140 GHz, its vertical reflection is the OAM beam of mode −2, and at the frequency of 200 GHz, the corresponding vertical reflection is the OAM beam of mode −1. Additionally, anomalously reflected OAM beams are designed, which, after RCP incidence on the metasurface, produce an OAM beam with mode −1 and a reflection angle of 17° at 140 GHz, and an OAM beam with mode +1 and a reflection angle of 12° at 200 GHz. Finally, a dual-beam OAM reflective metasurface is designed, which generates two vortex beams with mode +2 at 140 GHz and two vortex beams with mode +1 at 200 GHz under RCP incidence. Therefore, the metasurface designed in this paper has broad application prospects in multi-channel transmission for future terahertz communication systems.

Biaxial Gaussian Beams, Hermite–Gaussian Beams, and Laguerre–Gaussian Vortex Beams in Isotropy-Broken Materials

We have developed the paraxial approximation for electromagnetic fields in arbitrary isotropy-broken media in terms of the ray–wave tilt and the curvature of materials’ Fresnel wave surfaces. We have obtained solutions of the paraxial equation in the form of biaxial Gaussian beams, which is a novel class of electromagnetic field distributions in generic isotropy-broken materials. Such beams have been previously observed experimentally and numerically in hyperbolic metamaterials but have evaded theoretical analysis in the literature up to now. Biaxial Gaussian beams have two axes: one in the direction of the Abraham momentum, corresponding to the ray propagation, and another in the direction of the Minkowski momentum, corresponding to the wave propagation, in agreement with the recent theory of refraction, ray–wave tilt, and hidden momentum [Durach, 2024]. We show that the curvature of the wavefronts in the biaxial Gaussian beams correspond to the curvature of the Fresnel wave surface at the central wave vector of the beam. We obtain the higher-order modes of the biaxial beams, including the biaxial Hermite–Gaussian and Laguerre–Gaussian vortex beams, which opens avenues toward studies of the optical angular momentum (OAM) in isotropy-broken media, including generic anisotropic and bianisotropic materials.

An objective isogeometric mixed finite element formulation for nonlinear elastodynamic beams with incompatible warping strains

AbstractWe present a stable mixed isogeometric finite element formulation for geometrically and materially nonlinear beams in transient elastodynamics, where a Cosserat beam formulation with extensible directors is used. The extensible directors yield a linear configuration space incorporating constant in-plane cross-sectional strains. Higher-order (incompatible) strains are introduced to correct stiffness, whose additional degrees of freedom are eliminated by an element-wise condensation. Further, the present discretization of the initial director field leads to the objectivity of approximated strain measures, regardless of the degree of basis functions. For physical stress resultants and strains, we employ a global patch-wise approximation using B-spline basis functions, whose higher-order continuity enables using much fewer degrees of freedom than an element-wise approximation. For time-stepping, we employ implicit energy–momentum consistent scheme, which exhibits superior numerical stability in comparison to standard trapezoidal and mid-point rules. Several numerical examples are presented to verify the present method.

Third-order geometric stiffness formulation for improved mesh convergence of thin and wide spatial beams in the generalized strain beam formulation

AbstractThis paper presents the stiffness formulation of a beam element with the relevant third-order nonlinear geometric effects for relatively wide and thin rectangular beams, in particular when loaded in the plane and simultaneously deformed out of the plane. The element is initially straight in its undeformed configuration. The formulation is based on Timoshenko beam theory with nonuniform torsion and Wagner effects. The derivation is carried out by means of the Hellinger–Reissner variational principle with custom interpolation functions. The element is incorporated into the generalized strain beam formulation for multibody systems. Numerical simulations of precision flexure mechanisms show that the use of a single third-order element per flexible member can already yield adequate performance, at a significant reduction of the necessary degrees of freedom and the computation time, compared with using multiple second-order elements in the generalized strain beam formulation.

Adaptive Beamforming for On-Orbit Satellite-Based ADS-B Based on FCNN.

Digital multi-beam synthesis technology is generally used in the on-orbit satellite-based Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) system. However, the probability of successfully detecting aircraft with uneven surface distribution is low. An adaptive digital beamforming method is proposed to improve the efficiency of aircraft detection probability. The current method has the problem of long operation time and is not suitable for on-orbit operation. Therefore, this paper proposes an adaptive beamforming method for the ADS-B system based on a fully connected neural network (FCNN). The simulation results show that the calculation time of this method is about 2.6 s when more than 15,000 sets of data are inputted, which is 15-80% better than the existing methods. Its detection success probability is 10% higher than those of existing methods, and it has better robustness against large amounts of data.

Innovative Approaches to Beam Forming Antenna Array Systems with Adaptive Partial Update NLMS Algorithms

Improvements in interference cancellation, energy economy, spectrum efficiency, and system security are among the most pressing needs for today's wireless networks. One effective technique for this is the use of a Beamforming Array Antennas (BAA). However, the complexity of the Beamforming (BF) network, the long convergence time, and the large number of adjustable weight coefficients, all work against full band BAA. The key innovation and contribution of this research was to use Partial Update (PU) instead of full band adaptive algorithms, as no previous attempt had been made to do so. A subset of the array's elements, rather than all of them, will be connected to by PU methods. This allows the system to reduce the number of active antennas across all cells while maintaining high efficiency, and low cost. In this research, a new architectural model was proposed that makes use of PU adaptive algorithms, to reduce the required number of phase shifters (PSs), and hence base station antennas. For the most part, we will be discussing PU Normalized Least Mean Square (PU NLMS) algorithms like M-max NLMS, Periodic-NLMS, and Stochastic-NLMS. Using a Uniform Linear Array (ULA) Antennas in a simulation environment, we find that the, in terms of Mean Square Error (MSE), convergence rate, and steady-state error, it is evident that all PU NLMS algorithms (with the exception of Periodic-NLMS) had performed close, and approximately equivalent performance to the full band NLMS algorithms. In other hands, these PU algorithms maintain the radiation pattern with as little change from the original (distortion-free) as possible and symmetrical of the array, while. fewer elements are needed to produce the same amount of radiation. Reducing the number of required coefficients N to M (M = 5; M: Number of coefficients to be update per iteration) compared to the full update method (N = 8), to obtain the Reduction ratio 38%.

Optimal Design of Smart Antenna Arrays for Beamforming, Direction Finding, and Null Placement Using the Soft Computing Method

ABSTRACTThe urge of modern communication system is to design and development of the smart antennas with adaptive radiation characteristics. The multifold capabilities of fourth‐dimensional antenna arrays can cater that much needed adaptiveness if properly designed. Compared to the conventional arrays, the fourth‐dimensional arrays have one added advantage as the ‘Time’ of all the switched‐on antenna elements can be managed to generate the required amplitude and phase tapering without even using attenuators and phase shifters. However, one inherent limitation of fourth‐dimensional control parameter is the generation of harmonics or sidebands. This article proposes various means of radiation pattern synthesis in fourth‐dimensional linear antenna arrays with pulse shifting, pulse splitting, and a combination of both. First of all, the pulse splitting and shifting techniques are combinedly proposed by reducing the sidelobe levels and sideband levels of the beamforming antenna arrays to enhance directivities and efficiencies. Then, this mathematical proposition of the direction finding fourth‐dimensional arrays is developed. Finally, broad nulls over a specific angle of arrival region are created for jamming and interference mitigation. For all these cases, the sidelobe level and the unwanted higher‐order sideband levels are suppressed to reduce the unwanted interferences and power losses. The optimal time schemes for all the synthesized patterns are generated by proposing a chaos‐based soft computing algorithm. The radiofrequency signals at each radiating array element are processed by the optimal time schemes proposed for specific applications. The outcomes are validated and compared with other state‐of‐the‐art works of this domain to prove the competency of the proposed work. The qualitative and quantitative comparisons presented for beamforming array is aimed for a good improvement over other reported works by targeting ultralow (less than −40 dB) sidelobe and sideband levels. For direction‐finding array, the proposed idea has also targeted ultralow sidelobes for the main as well as steered beam patterns. Furthermore, the null placement over a region has been aimed to cover more area for jamming and sidelobe reduction for interference mitigation. Overall, the optimal designs proposed for these advanced applications are beneficial for cutting‐edge communication systems.

Optimized beamforming vector and antenna selection using autoencoder with Bayesian RNN and hybrid heuristic algorithm for MIMO systems

SummaryWireless communication systems depend on channel state information (CSI). However, the CSI collection is a significant barrier to achieving high performance. Present wireless communication models mainly rely on many antennas and related signal dispensation for increasing effectiveness. User mobility, the usage of greater frequencies, and a better number of antennas contribute to beamforming and beam management in these networks. Therefore, an improved hybrid heuristic algorithm is proposed here for providing optimized Joint beam forming and antenna selection (JBAS) in a multi‐input multi‐output (MIMO) model. The major novelty of the research work is to jointly perform the beam forming and antenna selection in MIMO that effectively enhanced the performance of the wireless transmission system. The major intention of this paper is to optimize the beamforming vectors and antennae by using the designed algorithm, where the spectral efficiency gets maximized. Initially, the data is collected by varying the number of users, locations, and sampling points, which is optimally selected by developing the hybrid reptile search‐based lion optimization algorithm (HRS‐LOA). Once it is collected, the relevant CSI is considered. This state of information is fed as input to the Auto Encoder with Bayesian Recurrent Neural Network (AE‐BRNN). Finally, through the network, the optimized value of the beamforming vector and antenna is obtained, which is useful to increase the sum rate/spectral efficiency. From the numerical results, the recommended model attained a spectral efficiency of 30 bits/s/Hz, which is higher than the BWO‐AE‐BRNN with 13%, RSO‐AE‐BRNN with 16%, RSA‐AE‐BRNN with 17%, and LA‐AE‐BRNN with 40% respectively.

Software-Defined Platform for Global Navigation Satellite System Antenna Array Development and Testing

With the increasing demand for accurate and robust positioning solutions, the use of GNSS antenna arrays has gained significant attention. However, their development and testing are frequently constrained by the inflexibility of traditional hardware platforms, often requiring extensive reconfiguration throughout the development cycle. This paper presents a platform based on a system on chip to develop a highly flexible software-controlled system that is capable of directly sampling up to 16 antenna elements. Multibeam digital beamforming is implemented using the available FPGA resources and the resulting signal is reproduced by the integrated DAC and can be connected to any conventional single antenna GNSS receiver. This paper presents the architecture of the platform, detailing its components and capabilities. Our experimental results demonstrate that the system can phase shift every channel with errors of less than 0.5° and can reconfigure 4 simultaneous beams of a 16-antenna array at speeds of 1.2 kHz, and 20 beams at around 400 Hz. The average delay introduced by each channel of the system is around 381 ns with a maximum deviation of 1.05 ns. The delay was also measured for the implementation using 4 beams, which achieves a slightly bigger average delay of 384.6 ns while keeping the variation to 5 to 6 ns. This system is intended to be used as the backbone for the development of antenna arrays and beamforming algorithms. Given its flexibility, it is not necessary to develop new hardware between development iterations or even for different systems, as only the software layer needs to be modified. Consequently, it is possible to expedite the development stage before producing dedicated solutions for industrial applications.

First Principles Variational Formulation and Analytical Solutions for Third Order Shear Deformable Beams with Simple Supports using Fourier Series Method

The Fourier series method for solving bending problems of third-order shear deformable beams (TSBD) is presented in this paper. The theory accounts for transverse shear deformation and is suitable for moderately thick beams. Transverse shear stress-free conditions are valid at the beam surfaces for TSDB. The field equations are two coupled ordinary differential equations in terms of two unknown displacement functions – transverse deflection w(x) and warping function For simply supported ends considered, the loading and unknown functions w(x) and are represented in Fourier series that satisfies the boundary conditions. The problem is reduced to a system of algebraic equations in terms of the Fourier coefficients wn and which is solved to obtain wn and Axial and transverse displacements fields, axial bending stress and transverse shear stress are then determined for the cases of point load at midspan, uniformly and linearly distributed loads over the span. The results are identical with previous results obtained by other scholars who used Ritz variational methods and other mathematical tools. For moderately thick beams under uniform load with l/h = 4, the results obtained for is 0.516% greater than the exact result by Timoshenko and Goodier while for thick beams under uniform load with l/h = 2, the result for is 1.96% greater than the exact result by Timoshenko and Goodier. Similar acceptable variation was obtained for for beams under linearly distributed load with the variations being less than 2% for l/h = 2. However, unacceptable variations of 68.37% were found for in thick beams under point load, for l/h = 2.0. The variation for however reduced to 12.513% for moderately thick beams under point load for l/h =4.

Influence of web reinforcement on shear behavior and size effect of lightweight aggregate concrete deep beams: Experimental and theoretical studies

In practice, deep beams with web reinforcement are the predominant form of deep beams. Understanding the effect of web reinforcement in deep beams made of lightweight aggregate concrete (LWAC) is essential for the structural application of LWAC deep beams, but it is still a pending subject. In this study, eight LWAC deep beams and two normal weight concrete deep beams were tested to investigate the influence of web reinforcement and beam depth on the shear behavior and size effect of LWAC deep beams. The experimental results showed that all deep beams failed in shear–compression mode, which is independent of the web reinforcement ratio and beam depth. The web reinforcement confined the concrete within the strut area and limited the concrete spalling, which positively affected the normalized serviceability/ultimate shear strength. Moreover, web reinforcement effectively mitigated the size effect by resisting the transverse tensile stress and improving the boundary confinement of the concrete struts, but could not eliminate the size effect in LWAC deep beams. Based on these results, a modified strut-and-tie model (MSTM) was developed to quantify the contribution of web reinforcements to the shear capacity more accurately than the conventional strut-and-tie model. The predictions obtained using the MSTM with the Warwick-Foster’s strut efficiency factor were in excellent agreement with the experimental results.

Hybrid Beamforming Structure Using Grouping with Reduced Number of Phase Shifters in Multi-User MISO

This paper proposes a novel hybrid beamforming (HBF) structure for gain-aware grouping transmit antennas and users in multiuser multiple-input single-output (MU-MISO) systems. In the conventional HBF structure, all transmit antennas form a beam to each user. In this case, the gain of each antenna varies depending on the location of the base station and each user, and the transmit power after the digital beamformer is allocated to the antenna with the smallest gain. Signals transmitted from antennas with small gains are susceptible to noise and interference. Therefore, this paper proposes an HBF structure in which only the antenna with the highest gain forms the beam for each user. In the proposed scheme, the transmitting antennas are grouped and the beam is formed only by the group of antennas with the highest gain for each user. Simulation results show that the proposed scheme can reduce the number of phase shifters used on the transmit side compared to the conventional HBF scheme while maintaining sum-rate performance when the number of transmit antennas and users are the same. It was also shown that there is a trade-off between the reduction in the number of phase shifters used to form the beam and the improvement in performance as the number of transmit antennas increases. Furthermore, it is shown that when antenna selection is used, although there is a trade-off between the number of phase shifters and performance improvement, the number of phase shifters can be reduced while maintaining performance even when the number of transmit antennas increases.

An accurate and locking-free geometric exact beam formulation on the special orthogonal group SO(3)

An accurate and locking-free geometric exact beam formulation (GEBF) on the special orthogonal group SO(3) is developed for slender beams with large deformations and large rotations. Due to the nonlinear nature of the spatial rotations, the classical GEBFs usually have a non-constant mass matrix and complex expressions of inertia forces; meanwhile, the singularity and locking issues are also key matters of concern. Aiming at resolving these drawbacks, two main contributions are achieved in the present work. First, the angular velocity is independently interpolated, resulting in a constant mass matrix and explicitly representable inertial forces, which can offer significant advantages for efficient dynamic simulations. Second, inspired by the assumed natural strain method in shell theory, the stretch-shear strain is interpolated to obtain simplified and locking-free elastic forces, which is a new attempt to alleviate the locking problems for the GEBFs. In addition, the special orthogonal group SO(3) is utilized for updating incremental rotation vectors to eliminate singularities, and objective strain measurement is achieved by employing relative rotation vector interpolation. The effectiveness and superiority of the developed low-order and high-order elements are demonstrated through numerical simulations of standard benchmark examples. The present work contributes to the advancement of accurate and reliable formulation for slender beams; the constant mass matrix, the locking-free characteristics, and the elegant form of the formulation make it particularly suitable for multibody dynamic analysis.

Research on energy utilization of electron beam melting for silicon purification

As a key material for solar photovoltaic power generation, the purity of silicon plays a crucial role in the photovoltaic conversion efficiency and performance. The electron beam melting (EBM), which is irreplaceable metallurgical methods, has been widely used for silicon purification. However, high energy consumption result in relatively high cost, which limits its widespread application in melting industry. This study was centered on the energy distribution that proposes a new approach to reducing energy consumption during EBM. The scanning form of electron beam is most important factor concerning energy consumption. Different scanning forms can affect the characteristics of molten pool which is closely correlated with the purification process. In this study, efficient and energy-saving preparation processes of EBM are being explored through the numerical model and experimental. The relationship of energy distribution form and purification efficiency is studied. The research results indicate that electron beam scanning under uniform distribution can achieve more uniform temperature and flow field distribution in the molten pool, which has a higher energy utilization rate during silicon purification by EBM. The mathematical model established in this study can effectively predict the energy consumption level under different melting parameters, providing important reference for the optimization and energy conservation of EBM process for other materials. In addition, evaporation characteristics of volatile impurity, migration of the second phase particles in the melt, controlling of melt pool characteristics and the crystal growth control all can be conducted based on this study.