Forests In Slovakia Research Articles

The Effect of Transition to Close-to-Nature Forestry on Growing Stock, Wood Increment and Harvest Possibilities of Forests in Slovakia

The aim of the study is to quantify the impacts of a possible transition to close-to-nature forestry in Slovakia and to compare the expected development of the total volume production, growing stock, merchantable wood increment and harvesting possibilities of forests in Slovakia with current conventional management using the FCarbon forest-growth model and available data from the Information System of Forest Management. The subject of the study was all forest stands available for wood supply (FAWS). The simulations were run in annual iterations using tree input data aggregated over 10-year-wide age classes. The calculation of wood increments was based on available growth models. In the business-as-usual (BAU) scenario, stock losses were based on the actual intensity of wood harvesting in the reference period 2013–2022. In the scenario of the transition to close-to-nature forest management, the losses were specifically modified from the usual harvesting regime at the beginning, to the target harvesting mode in selective forest at the end of the simulated period. With the modelling method used, a gradual increase in forest stocks occurred in both evaluated scenarios in the monitored period, namely by 10% in the case of BAU and by 23% in the case of close-to-nature forest management until 2050. In absolute mining volume, CTNF is by 5–10% lower than BAU management, with the difference gradually decreasing. The results show that the introduction of close-to-nature forest management will temporarily reduce the supply of wood to the market, but this reduction will not be significant and will be compensated by a higher total volume production, and thus also by increased carbon storage in forests.

The Effectiveness of Tannin on the Amount of Damage to Forest Trees and Stands Caused by Red Deer in the Western Carpathians

Damage caused by cloven-hoofed game and wild animals is a serious problem in Slovakia and neighboring countries. In 2022, the damage to forests in Slovakia was estimated at a level of almost EUR 2.9 million. Despite several implemented measures, the situation is so severe that successfully restoring some trees in some heavily attacked stands is impossible. This paper deals with the preventive elimination of damage caused by red deer in forest stands by the biological method of applying tannin-based mineral licks. Specifically, licks containing tannin obtained from the edible chestnut were used for testing. Several positive effects are attributed to tannins in developing livestock and animal fitness status. To date, however, the question of using tannins as biological agents for the possible protection of forest stands has not been addressed. Therefore, red deer damage was assessed at two localities with similar natural conditions in the central part of the Western Carpathians to explore such a possibility. After the initial sample measurement of the bark-stripping damage caused by the red deer in the autumn, mineral licks with tannin were placed in one selected study area over the winter. The levels of and differences in forest damage by deer between areas with the application of licks with tannin and without tannin were detected in spring of the following year. In the location treated with tannin, the number of damaged sample plots decreased, and the mean plot damage did not increase (no statistically significant differences were registered in mean plot damage between autumn and spring). Meanwhile, in the control location, the total amount of bark-stripped area doubled, mainly due to a statistically significant increase in mean plot damage between autumn and spring. Based on this, we conclude that tannin had a significant preventive effect and considerably reduced the extent of bark stripping. Such promising results indicate that tannin licks can effectively mitigate the problem of bark-stripping damage in areas heavily attacked by red deer.

Long-term temporal analysis of fatal and severe occupational accidents in Central European forests of the Slovak Republic

Introduction: Forestry is one of the most dangerous industries worldwide. Workers handle heavy loads and are exposed to numerous adverse factors of the work environment. This study was focused on analyzing severe and fatal occupational accidents over a long period. Methods: Data were gathered from occupational safety and health databases of the State Forests of the Slovak Republic, which manages 879,113 ha of forests in Slovakia. Between 2007 and 2021, 210 severe and64 fatal accidents were recorded. The data analyses included contingency tables, Pearson χ2 test, and Cramer’s V coefficient to analyze the relationships between studied variables. Results: The mean annual number of fatalities was 14, occurring to workers aged 42 on average. Almost 80% of all fatal accidents were suffered by contractors of harvesting operations, who were 5.23 times more likely to suffer a fatality than company employees. On average, 1.28 severe and0.75 fatal accidents occurred per 1 million m3 of harvested timber. The outcomes of the correlation analysis showed a decreasing trend in incidence in the case of severe accidents. Workers ≤ 30 years or between 51 and 60 years of age were the most vulnerable in the case of fatal accidents. In the case of severe accidents, workers between 51 and 60 were the most vulnerable group. Most fatal accidents were suffered by tree fellers (72.2%) during felling (69.8%), who were in contact with falling trees and tree parts (93.7% share for this material agent). Conclusion and Practical Applications: The presented study identified the most vulnerable worker groups as well as the effects of factors on the occurrence of severe and fatal occupational accidents in forestry. The results will serve in development of occupational safety and health strategies in forest enterprises.

Incidence and pathogenicity of Phytophthora species in beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) stands in Slovakia

The common beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) is the main forest-forming species in Slovakia and its share accounts for over 31% of the total forest area in this country. Recently, there are more and more reports of the deterioration of the health of this species in Europe, incl. as a result of the action of pathogens of the genus Phytophthora. The aim of this study is to confirm the presence of pathogens of the genus Phytophthora in beech forests in Slovakia. Ten plots in central and western Slovakia were selected for the study. The presence of: P. x cambivora, P. cactorum, P. plurivora, Globisporangium macrosporum, and G. heterothallicum was confirmed in the samples taken. A pathogenicity test was performed to confirm Koch’s postulates. After three months, the plants were gently taken out, and then: the pathogen was reisolated from the roots to confirm its presence in the tissues, the root systems were scanned and the image was analyzed with WinRhizo software, and finally the roots were dried to obtaining dry biomass. Additionally, during the course of the experiment, the degree of infection of the plants was assessed weekly in order to calculate the area under the disease-progress curve. The conducted research showed the greatest threat from P. x cambivora. In this variant, the symptoms of plant dieback were observed the fastest, as well as the pathogen, compared to the control variant, significantly damaged the root systems.

Contrasting Norway spruce disturbance dynamics in managed forests and strict forest reserves in Slovakia

AbstractForest disturbances are intensifying globally, yet regional drivers of these dynamics remain poorly understood. We investigated recent disturbance intensities in Norway spruce (Picea abies L.) forests in Slovakia (Central Europe) with different management objectives in 2000–2017 based on Landsat imagery. We focused on 122 strict reserves without any management, their actively managed surroundings (500 m and 2000 m buffers), and managed production forests beyond the buffer areas. We used generalized additive mixed models to test for differences in temporal trends of disturbance intensity among these management categories. We found that disturbance intensity was increasing in all management categories during the studied period. The increase was more pronounced in the managed forests (compound annual disturbance rate 1.76% year−1) and the 2000 m buffer (2.21% year−1) than in the strict reserves (0.58% year−1). The predicted cumulative disturbance during the 18-year period was 9.9% in the reserves and 30.5% in the 2000 m buffer. We found that forests in nature reserves can be more resistant to disturbances than forests managed for timber production, despite management efforts to control disturbances in managed forests. Our findings can help reconcile the different perceptions of natural disturbances and their management in Central Europe and support climate-adapted management strategies that consider natural disturbances as an indispensable component of ecosystem dynamics.

Changes in Diversity and Structure of Thrips (Thysanoptera) Assemblages in the Spruce Forest Stands of High Tatra Mts. after a Windthrow Calamity.

Simple SummaryThe most important disturbances in European forests are windstorms and fire. In 2004, 12,000 ha of High Tatra Mts. (Slovakia) forests were seriously damaged by strong winds. Furthermore, in 2005 the area of 250 ha of not cleared forest from fallen wood biomass after windstorms was burned down. Our study brings an overview on the influences of irregular wind and fire disturbances and subsequently human activities upon the structure of thrips communities there, where eight study plots with different after-calamity management were chosen. There were two study plots that were affected by wind and subsequent management with the extraction of fallen wood biomass and influenced by fire that were characterized by low species richness. In comparison, not cleared habitats from fallen wood biomass with significantly higher species richness of thrips and higher values of diversity were characterized mainly by the presence of grass-living species Chirothrips manicatus and Limothrips denticornis. The meadow communities with longer development and higher values of diversity were inhabited by the species-rich community mainly with Thrips fuscipennis, T. brevicornis, T. flavus, and T. tabaci. Gradually, in the process of secondary succession these thrips assemblages will be probably replaced by the thrips of the shaded and long-term forests that are mainly composed of Oxythrips bicolor, O. ajugae, and Thrips pini. Strong winds, fire, and subsequent forest management impact arthropod communities. We monitored the diversity and changes in the community structure of forest thrips assemblages in the context of secondary succession and anthropogenic impact. There were eight study plots that were affected to varying degrees by the mentioned disturbances that were selected in the Central European spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) forests in Slovakia. The soil photoeclectors were used to obtain thrips in the study plots during two vegetation seasons. The thrips assemblages and their attributes were analyzed by non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS). The significant changes in community structure, composition, stratification, species richness, and diversity of thrips assemblages that were caused by natural- (wind) and human-induced disturbance (forestry and fire) were observed in our research. Our analyses revealed a clear relationship between different thrips assemblages and impacted environment. Moreover, our results indicate that silvicolous thrips species may be useful for indicating changes and disturbances in forest ecological systems.

Thermophilous oak forests in Slovakia

Thermophilous oak forests in Slovakia

Carbon sequestration in living biomass of Slovak forests: recent trends and future projection

Abstract The paper predicts development of forests in Slovakia from the perspective of carbon sequestration. Projection is based on actual trends of changes in forest area, age structure and tree species composition of forest stands managed according to forest management plans. Carbon balance in living biomass has been simulated until 2050 under two harvesting scenarios (based on planned and realized harvesting rates in reference period 2014–2019) with four possible combinations of fixed or changing tree species composition and size of forest area. Input data were stratified by tree species and 10-years wide age classes. A model simulating forest growth using yield tables and harvesting rates was developed and applied for prediction. Results indicate that the scenario based on realized harvesting would lead to a higher level of CO2 removals from atmosphere by living biomass in Slovak forests for the whole simulated period, despite their decrease from the current level ~ −4,000 kt CO2 to ~ −2,000 until 2040 and an increase to~ −2,800 kt CO2 in 2050. Conversely, scenario based on planned harvesting could result in a stronger decrease of CO2 removals, with the culmination in 2040 at ~ −200 kt CO2 followed by a slight increase to ~ −1,000 kt CO2 in 2050. The influences of changes in tree species composition and increasing forest area were significantly lower than effect of different harvesting rates. Results achieved by this study suggest that adjusting harvested volume (e.g., by decreasing harvesting rates or modifying rotation periods) could be the most effective tool to intensify CO2 removals by living biomass in Slovak forests in the upcoming decades.

Non-native plant species in alder-dominated forests in Slovakia: what does the regional- and the local-scale approach bring?

Abstract European riparian forests are in general susceptible to plant invasions compared to other natural forest habitats. Their descriptive vegetation overviews with phytosociological affiliation contain detail insight into species composition patterns at various geographical scales, but quantitative assessment of the relationship between non-native plant richness and measured environmental variables is still scarce. We used two vegetation datasets of alder-dominated forests to analyse plant invasion patterns in the Pannonian and the Carpathian region of Slovakia. A large dataset of 918 vegetation plots was used at the regional scale, whereas 40 vegetation plots completed by ecological (mainly soil, climatic) predictors were used at the local scale in order to determine how they shape non-native species richness. We found significant differences (P < 0.05) between the Pannonian and the Carpathian region in the number of non-native vascular plants at both scales, with altitude being the most important predictor. Generalized Linear Models accounted for 56.6% and 59.6% of alien species richness data in the Pannonian and Carpathian region, respectively. Alien richness was affected by altitude and soil pH in the Pannonian region, but only by altitude in the Carpathian region.

Estimation of changes in runoff due to changes in forest composition

Abstract In recent decades many forests in Slovakia, especially those in mountain basins, have been devastated by wind or snow calamities. Hence, the main aim of this paper is to analyze land use a...

Generalized Nonlinear Mixed-Effects Individual Tree Diameter Increment Models for Beech Forests in Slovakia

Individual tree growth and yield models precisely describe tree growth irrespective of stand complexity and are capable of simulating various silvicultural alternatives in the stands with diverse structure, species composition, and management history. We developed both age dependent and age independent diameter increment models using long-term research sample plot data collected from both monospecific and mixed stands of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in the Slovak Republic. We used diameter at breast height (DBH) as a main predictor and other characteristics describing site quality (site index), stand development stage (dominant height and stand age), stand density or competition (ratio of individual tree DBH to quadratic mean diameter), species mixture (basal area proportion of a species of interest), and dummy variable describing stand management regimes as covariate predictors to develop the models. We evaluated eight versatile growth functions in the first stage using DBH as a single predictor and selected the most suitable one, i.e., Chapman-Richards function for further analysis through the inclusion of covariate predictors. We introduced the random components describing sample plot-level random effects and stochastic variations on the diameter increment, into the models through the mixed-effects modelling. The autocorrelation caused by hierarchical data-structure, which is assumed to be partially reduced by mixed-effects modelling, was removed through the inclusion of the parameter accounting for the autoregressive error-structures. The models described about two-third parts of a total variation in the diameter increment without significant trends in the residuals. Compared to the age independent mixed-effects model (conditional coefficient of determination, R c 2 = 0.6566; root mean square error, RMSE = 0.1196), the age dependent model described a significantly larger proportion of the variations in diameter increment ( R c 2 = 0.6796, RMSE = 0.1141). Diameter increment was significantly influenced differently by covariate predictors included into the models. Diameter increment decreased with the advancement of stand development stage (increased dominant height and stand age), increasing intraspecific competition (increased basal area proportion of European beech per sample plot), and diameter increment increased with increasing site quality (increased site index) and decreased competition (increased ratio of DBH to quadratic mean diameter). Our mixed-effects models, which can be easily localized with the random effects estimated from prior measurement of diameter increments of four randomly selected trees per sample plot, will provide high prediction accuracies. Our models may be used for simulating growth of European beech irrespective of its stand structural complexity, as these models have included various covariate variables describing both tree-and stand-level characteristics, thinning regimes, except the climate characteristics. Together with other forest models, our models will be used as inputs to the growth simulator to be developed in the future, which is important for decision-making in forestry.

Tricholomopsis badinensis sp. nov. and T. sulphureoides—two rare fungi of European old-growth forests

Interesting Tricholomopsis collections from old-growth forests in Slovakia and Poland were studied morphologically and molecularly using the ITS-LSU rDNA regions. Phylogenetic analysis of sequence data for all hitherto sequenced Tricholomopsis species revealed a geographic pattern. Species distributed primarily in the Holarctic are separated from those occurring in the Southern Hemisphere. Tricholomopsis decora is a species complex within which T. badinensis, a newly discovered European species, is described based on collections from fallen trunks of silver fir (Abies alba) in the Badinsky prales virgin forest in Slovakia. The species forms a well-supported clade in the phylogenetic tree. Morphologically, it is distinguished by medium-sized basidiomata, a brightly yellow to olive-yellow pileus with a tomentose, finely scaly to fibrillose covering which has an orange-yellow, yellow-brown to olive-brown color, scales adpressed for a long time and mostly ellipsoid basidiospores measuring 7–9(9.5) × (4)4.5–6 μm. Rich collections of T. sulphureoides from the Bialowieza virgin forest in Poland are described, and the distribution and ecology of the species is summarized. The great biological value of the two aforementioned localities and the Dobrocský prales virgin forest in Slovakia, a formerly published locality of T. sulphureoides (as T. osiliensis), is documented by a rich list of fungi considered old-growth forest indicators. A preliminary key for the identification of European Tricholomopsis species lacking red or violet coloration is proposed.

Salvage felling in the Slovak Republic’s forests during the last twenty years (1998–2017)

Abstract Global climate change also influences the forest damaging agents occurrence and thus a forest health. Forest trees that are damaged by agents are in managed forests processed by salvage felling. The amount of an annual salvage felling represents the occurrence of a damaging agents occurrence in a certain year. In 2015, the area of forests in Slovakia reached 2.014 mil. ha. Within the 20 years (from 1998 to 2017), the total felling reached 162.52 mil. m3, out of this 47.99 % were ascribed to a salvage felling. Abiotic agents were the most damaging agents (42.28 mil. m3 of damaged wood), out of it a wind was the most important one. Biotic damaging agents were the second important group (32.165 mil. m3), whereas bark beetles on spruce were the most important. The third group and the less damaging one was anthropogenic agents group (3.555 mil. m3) with an air pollution as the most important damaging agent. There was no statistically significant difference in the volume of processed trees within salvage felling caused by abiotic and biotic damaging agents. However, these two groups caused significantly higher damages than the third group of anthropogenic damaging agents. There were two major wind damages, Alžbeta in 2004 and Žofia in 2014 with damaged wood 5.3 mil. m3 and 5.2 mil. m3, respectively. They occurred in southern, central and northern part of Slovakia. As damaged wood was not processed from strict nature conservation areas, the secondary damaging agents, mostly Ips typographus on Norway spruce reproduced as much that after some years it cumulatively reached or even exceeded damages from those two major windthrows episodes.

A novel empirical approach for determining the extension of forest development stages in temperate old-growth forests

In the analysis of old-growth forest dynamics, the continuous process of tree aging and forest structural change is split up into several distinct forest development stages. The criteria for distinguishing the stages vary among the different approaches. In most of them, vertical canopy heterogeneity is only coarsely addressed and horizontal forest structure is quantified at spatial scales far exceeding the size of conventional forest inventory plots. In order to describe and analyze the complex mosaic structure of temperate old-growth forests with objective and quantitative measures in the context of forest inventories, we propose the Development Stage Index I DS . It employs two easily measured stand structural parameters (stem density and basal area) for quantifying the abundance of trees in three conventionally recognized tree diameter classes (premature < 40 cm; mature 40–70 cm; and over-mature ≥ 70 cm) in plots of 500 m2 size, systematically distributed in the forest. This allows quantifying the spatial extension of the Initial, Optimum and Terminal stages of forest development at plot, stand and landscape levels. Based on thorough stand structural analyses in three virgin beech (Fagus sylvatica) forests in Slovakia, we demonstrate that I DS is a promising tool for (1) quantifying the proportion of the three stages on different scales, (2) visualizing the complex mixing of stages, and (3) analyzing dynamic changes in old-growth forest structure. We conclude that the Development Stage Index has the potential to improve the empirical foundation of forest dynamics research and to allow this discipline to proceed to more rigorous hypothesis testing.

Habitat preferences of Hericium erinaceus in Slovakia

Distribution patterns, ecology and habitats of Hericium erinaceus in Slovakia are presented, together with an indication of its population size and dynamics as driven by the type of substratum the fungus feeds on. Basidiomata have been recorded both on living and dead trees, predominantly on oaks (Quercus spp.) but also on European beech (Fagus sylvatica), and at altitudes ranging from 103 to 753 m, which in Slovakia corresponds to warm hilly and upland beech-oak forests. Standing trunks were a more common substratum than fallen trunks. Although the fungus tends to occur in old-growth forests, nearly half of the observations were from managed forests. Given the observed distribution, we conclude that H. erinaceus is not a strict indicator of intact old-growth forests in Slovakia.

Effects of forest management on stand leaf area: Comparing beech production and primeval forests in Slovakia

The productivity and water consumption of forests depend on stand leaf area, which may vary with tree age, forest structure, and environment. How forest management affects leaf area and whether production forests have different leaf areas than unmanaged natural forests, is not clear. We compared the leaf area index (LAI) of production forests of European beech (Fagus sylvatica) with that of primeval forests (three forests in each case) in Slovakia and analyzed the LAI change from early to late stages of the natural forest development cycle. Optically determined LAI (LAI2000 Plant Canopy Analyzer) was on average 7.1m2m−2 (2.8–11.0m2m−2) in the primeval forests and 7.4m2m−2 (4.3–11.2m2m−2) in the production forests. Model results show that transforming beech primeval forests into even-aged production forests would reduce LAI by ∼1.6 units, if stem density is kept constant. Complex primeval forest canopies thus promote the formation of higher LAIs. However, this effect was compensated for by the higher stem densities of the production forests, resulting on average in similar LAIs of production and primeval forests. In the terminal stage of natural forest development with tree death and gap formation, plot-level LAI was not lower than in the earlier growth and optimal stages, probably because neighboring beech trees were rapidly filling gaps with foliage. This suggests that stand-level productivity is not reduced in the terminal stage of forest development, since LAI is rapidly restored after the death of individual trees. Our results provide insights into the functional role of structural complexity in temperate forest canopies and how European beech maintains dominance across the full forest development cycle.

Network and participatory governance in urban forestry: An assessment of examples from selected Slovakian cities

Current political trends and scholarly research increasingly promotes network and participatory governance in multi-level systems as a way to more sustainable and effective environmental policy. In Slovakia best practice knowledge on shaping and implementing participatory processes is scarce. The main aim of the article is to assess the role of various stakeholders in the processes of participatory and network governance in urban forests in Slovakia. Based on selected case studies critical factors of success or failure in urban forestry at local level were identified. The methodological approach consisted of combination of multiple research methods. The main data sources for the qualitative part were expert structural interviews and complemented by desk study of relevant scientific literature, strategic documents, and personal observation and own findings from previous research projects on public participation. At national and regional levels open, continuous and initiatively functioning network is present and influences decision making. The result of the cooperation among various stakeholders at the local level most frequently takes the form of positive experience sharing from the implementation of community and civic projects, but it can also be beneficial to promote alternative proposals in strategic documents and development plans. In Slovakia, companies of municipal forests organize participatory processes in collaboration with local self-government, local and regional state government, nature conservation agencies, community activists and NGOs and enhance participation at regional and local level. The results thus show that difference between success and failure in many participatory processes is often unclear especially if a large number of stakeholders take part in the activities and their interests might differ. The crucial factor for the success or failure of the complex participatory process is to ensure the sustainability of the achieved goal or result.

Perceptions of Forest Owners and the General Public on the Role of Forests in Slovakia

AbstractDuring the past decades, the awareness of environmental issues in forest management is increasing due to changes in environmental education. The perceptions of forests, sustainable management, and ecosystem services were studied through two surveys. The general public and forest owners were the two target groups. The questionnaires had similar questions, though two different methodological approaches were used - the CATI system, for general public opinion survey, and semi-structured questionnaires for forest owners. The second survey contained more detailed questions regarding forest properties. Combined answers from 1503 respondents from the general public and 150 forest owners were evaluated on the following topics: sustainable forestry, major ecosystem services, and perceptions of forests. The majority of the Slovakian public regards ecological values as the most important element, whereas forest owners prefer the economic purposes for the maintenance and enhancement of forests. Forest owners tend to visit their forests once per week, whereas the general public tend to visit only once per month. The main cause for this non-attendance in the general public was a lack of recreational time, followed by a disinterest in forests. The main purpose for visiting forests for both groups was recreation. Overall, it can be concluded that people are mostly satisfied with forest management in Slovakia. Forest owners are satisfied with their forest properties, and plan to keep them for their children. In the future, more attention should be focused on investigating the younger generation’s perception of forests.

Wind – an important ecological factor and destructive agent in forests

AbstractWind is both an ecological provider and disturbance facilitator influences trees and other organisms in forests. Impacts of wind on induvidual trees and forests mainly depend on the strength (or intensity) of the wind and the stability of the trees. Wind causes large-scale damage to forests and serious economical losses for the forestry sector within Europe. Therefore, knowledge of interactions between wind and trees and/or forests provides the baseline for developing adequate prevention or mitigation of the negative consequences associated with wind disturbances in forest ecosystems. Herein, we analyse the wind as an ecological and disturbance factor in forests in Europe, emphasising forests in Slovakia. Here, strong winds destroy mostly spruce dominated forests in the following regions; Orava, High and Low Tatra Mountains, Great Fatra Mountains, Pohronie, Poľana Mountains and Slovak Ore Mountains. Increasing volumes of timber damaged by windstorms have been documented since 1961, with the maximum damage recorded in 2004. Yearly volumes of damaged timber of approximately 2.5 mil. m3are predicted from 2016 to 2030. This highlights the data requirement regarding wind disturbances for integrated forest protection against dangerous winds and other disturbance agents in forest ecosystems in Slovakia and other European countries.

Fungi and lichens recorded during the Cryptogam Symposium on Natural Beech Forests, Slovakia 2011.

In September 2011, an international team of cryptogam experts visited seven national nature reserves in five mountain areas of Slovakia: Havesova and Stužica in the Poloniny Mts., Vihorlat in the Vihorlatske vrchyMts., Oblik in the Slanske vrchyMts., Dobrocský prales and Klenovský Vepor in the Veporske vrchy Mts. and Badinsky prales in the Kremnicke vrchy Mts. The reserves were selected to represent examples of the best protected old-growth beech forests in the country. The aim was to study the diversity of wood-inhabiting fungi on fallen beech logs and epiphytic lichens on standing beech trees. In total, 215 fungal species and 128 lichens were recorded on beech wood and bark, and 27 fungi and 26 lichens on additional substrates. The site of the highest conservation value is Stužica with 126 fungi and 79 lichens recorded on beech, of which 12 fungi and 19 lichens are indicators of high nature conservation value. Combined with historical records, a total of 19 non-lichenised fungal indicators are now reported from the site, making it the highest ranked natural beech forest in Europe. The second most important reserve for fungal diversity is Havesova with 121 species, including 14 indicator species recorded on beech wood. For lichens, the second most important reserve is Klenovský Vepor with 69 species including 18 lichen indicators recorded on beech. Nine fungus species are here reported as new to Slovakia: Asterostroma medium, Entoloma hispidulum, E. pseudoparasiticum, Gloeohypochnicium analogum, Hohenbuehelia valesiaca, Hymenochaete ulmicola, Hypocrea parmastoi, Melanomma spiniferum and Scutellinia colensoi. Lichen species Alyxoria ochrocheila is reported as new to Slovakia and Lecanographa amylacea, which was considered extinct in the Slovak Red list, was also recorded. This is the first list of wood-inhabiting fungi and epiphytic lichens of old-growth beech forests in Slovakia, and hence an important contribution to the exploration of biodiversity in Slovakia.