Forestry Projects Research Articles

Potential and investment attractiveness of improved forestry projects under increasing climatic challenges

The aim is to justify the potential and provide an assessment of the effectiveness of investing in forest climate projects for improved forestry.A systematic approach was used for a comprehensive, structured and dynamic study of the potential of project activities (forest‐climatic projects) to improve forest productivity. The investment efficiency of forest‐climatic projects on improved forestry is determined taking into account the life cycle of project solutions. To conduct an express assessment of investment attractiveness of forest‐climatic projects, the coefficient characterizing the efficiency of investment for the produce of carbon units was used.It has been revealed that the regions of the Northwestern, Ural and Siberian Federal Districts have the greatest potential of areas of plots (over 2 million ha) for the realization of forest‐climatic projects on improved forestry. It has been shown that for the implementation of forest‐climatic projects on improved forestry in the conditions of the Central forest‐steppe per 1 ha investments of up to 100 thousand rubles are required. For climatic projects on improved forestry, the minimum investment per unit area will be from 97–111 thousand rubles per 1 ha, taking into account the life cycle of the project.The actual practice‐oriented task in the field of forestry has been solved. It consisted in substantiating the investment attractiveness of natural solutions aimed at increasing the carbon depositing functions of forest ecosystems. Calculated potential of areas for the implementation of forest‐climatic projects on improved forestry is an important tool for territorial planning and ensuring sustainable development of regional systems.

Stand characteristics regulate forest water use efficiency in the Three-North Shelterbelt Forest Program region of China

Abstract The Three-North Shelter Forest Program (TNSFP) of China, one of the largest forestry ecological projects, serves as a nature-based solution to addressing ecological, social, and economic challenges and issues. This program, mainly situated in arid and semi-arid regions, critically focuses on improving water use efficiency (WUE) - maximizing carbon sequestration per unit of water consumed - as a key strategy for optimizing water resource utilization and ensuring the long-term success of vegetation restoration efforts. However, the regulatory mechanisms of forest WUE in this region remain unclear. Here, we adopted an interpretative machine-learning method to investigate the influence of main environmental elements, topographical conditions, and stand characteristics on forest WUE in the TNSFP region from 2001 to 2022 based on remote sensing products, ground monitoring data, and forest inventory data. Our study identified soil moisture (SM) as the primary factor influencing forest WUE across the TNSFP region, with higher SM levels generally leading to improved WUE in forests. However, stand characteristics strongly mediated their relationship. Specifically, forest WUE initially increases against forest density before peaking at about 1000 trees hm–2 for needle-leaved forests and 800 trees hm–2 for broad-leaved forests, respectively, then gradually declining due to water competition. When SM is relatively adequate, moderate thinning could significantly enhance forest WUE. Furthermore, implementing management strategies to improve WUE is crucial as needle-leaved forests mature. This study emphasizes the significant impacts of stand characteristics on forest WUE in the TNSFP region, offering essential insights for optimizing water resource management in managed forests across arid and semi-arid regions.

Organized labour migration of residents of Lithuania to the USSR in the sixth–ninth decades of the 20th century

Referring to archive and historiographic materials, in this paper problematics of labour migration to the USSR from Lithuania in 1953-1984 is analysed. Attention is drawn to migration directions, motivation of residents, quantitative indices, territorial aspects related to persons participating in labour migration process and social picture. Residents of Lithuania became participants of the campaign for organized all Soviet Union-wide labour force migration to participate in implementation of large and important land, forestry and industry projects. By the way, the residents of our Republic joined this campaign later than residents from other Republics – in 1953 only. Organized labour force migration from Lithuania to the USSR was of lower level that it had been planned in Moscow. The main directions of labour force migration were: 1) agriculture intensification program (virgin lands campaigns in Kazakhstan and Russia); 2) Russian forestry development program; 3) program of construction of gigantic transport and industrial objects in Russia (Siberia, etc.); 4) the “Third Semester” program – season-based works of students in industry and agriculture sectors of Russia, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and other Soviet Republics. In 6th-9th decades of the 20th century, about 75 thousand residents of Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic were sent to work in other regions of the Soviet Union; labour migrants worked on industrial objects, farms and forestry units. Mostly, they were men from urban areas, by ethnic composition – Russians and Lithuanians. The most intensive time period of sending to work as labour migrants was the 1953-1965 period, as at that time in Kazakhstan and Russia huge programs of economic development had been implemented (virgin lands campaign, forestry development). Namely during this period, over 80 per cent of residents of Lithuania who participated in this campaign were sent to labour destinations. Although in later years the migration campaign covered entire Lithuania, its scale diminished markedly. Due to certain national traits of Lithuanians (sedentary life, attachment to the land) and social-economic situation in the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (fast and intensive industry development ensuring quite good wages, well-developed social infrastructure, etc.), the residents of Lithuania liked to conclude short-term employment agreements, and after termination of these agreements made efforts to return to Lithuania and stay there not attracted by labour migration campaign anymore.

Site-based climate-smart tree species selection for forestation under climate change

Global climate change threatens ecosystem functions and resilience, prompting large-scale planting initiatives to mitigate its impacts. To ensure new plantations are adaptive to future climates, it is crucial to consider climate mismatches resulting from climate change when selecting tree species. However, current research is all species-based, which is not effective for species selection across species at specific plantation sites. Our research developed a novel site-based approach that can identify optimal tree species for specific planting sites under projected future climates. We evaluated the feasibility and effectiveness of this method across 10 representative sites in diverse climatic zones in China based on climate niche projections for 100 key tree species. Our findings demonstrated the necessity and effectiveness of this approach, which can select a suit of suitable tree species tailored for any potential planting site across China under different climate change scenarios. For instance, at Tibet Dongjiu Forest farm, Aibes densa and Quercus pannosa currently showed high suitability scores above 0.8 (on a scale of 0–1). However, by the 2080s, Aibes densa's suitability was projected to drop to 0.25, while Quercus pannosa was expected to maintain its suitability. Conversely, Quercus aquifolioides currently had a low suitability of 0.08, but it was projected to increase to 0.74 by the 2080s. These findings demonstrate the importance of using this approach to avoid selecting the wrong species or overlooking potentially suitable species. In addition, our simulation analysis suggests that a dataset of 40–50 species is necessary to ensure that most planting sites can identify 2–3 suitable species. This advancement significantly enhances the precision and effectiveness of tree species selection strategies for local practitioners, offering vital insights for forestry, conservation, and ecological restoration projects. These results highlight the tremendous potential and practical applicability of our site-based approach in enhancing forestry adaptation and ecological functions in response to global climate change.

Forest Stewards Guild position on climate-smart forestry

Climate-smart forestry is an increasingly important topic in forest policy and for practices. However, what does and does not constitute climate-smart forestry is subject of debate. At stake are billions of dollars of investment aimed at encouraging climate-smart forestry practices in the United States. As a leading voice for ecologically, economically, and socially responsible forestry, The Forest Stewards Guild (FSG) has produced a position statement based on the organization's vision, mission, and principles to guide conversations around climate-smart forestry for all interested stakeholders. This forest perspective presents and expands on the findings of the FSG position on climate-smart forestry. There are three common aspects in the multiple co-existing definitions of climate-smart forestry: 1) adapting forests to expected future climate conditions, 2) mitigating climate change by leveraging carbon sequestration and storage functions of forests, and 3) improving social outcomes. There are potential trade-offs with other benefits forests provide if climate-smart forestry is pursued without holistic consideration of forest ecosystems. We suggest that such trade-offs can be minimized if the goals of climate-smart forestry projects are communicated transparently, system boundaries are made as comprehensive as possible, potential trade-offs are assessed along with climate benefits, climate-smart practices are tailored to the social-ecological contexts, and uncertainty is recognized.

Above-ground carbon stock in rehabilitated and unrehabilitated mined areas in Mogpog, Marinduque, Philippines

Economic, social, and ecological aspects of the environment are all impacted differently by mining in different parts of the world. When mining activities end and leave the area bare, rehabilitation and revegetation are required to minimize the impacts of mining in general. By fixing carbon in tree biomass, these interventions have a positive effect on increasing carbon storage. Measuring carbon stock is essential to evaluating the effectiveness of these interventions. This study was conducted in an inactive mining area in Marinduque, Philippines. Plots for sampling were created in areas that were not yet undergoing rehabilitation as well as those that were. The above-ground carbon stock and biomass were estimated using the allometric equation provided by IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) and Sourcebook for Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry Projects as references, respectively. The results for areas undergoing rehabilitation and those that were not indicated 4.297 t/ha and 0.0509 t/ha, respectively. The former has an above-ground carbon stock of 2.1485 t/ha, and the latter has 0.2545 t/ha. This shows a successful increase in biomass and carbon stock in the area undergoing rehabilitation. This comparison suggests that rehabilitation and revegetation should be implemented in mining areas to help mitigate the impacts of mining while also sequestering carbon. Policies and activities that will protect the current rehabilitation efforts and expand this rehabilitation to other inactive mining areas should be incorporated for future research.

Department of Forest's new community Forestry Guideline

Department of Forest (DOF) has issued a new version of Community Forestry Guideline in May 2001, replacing the first version that was issued 10 years back. Officials engaged in developing this amendment indicate in their preface statements that a new versionof the guideline was felt necessary in the changing contexts of community forestry policies and practices over thepast several years in general, and in particular, to address the challenges of meeting escalating demand for increasingly diverse services to communities. The guideline was prepared with involvement of, and support from bilateral forestry projects, who deputed their representatives in the guideline review task force constituted by DOF. An outline of the draft guideline was discussed in two national level meetings of government forest officials and forestry project staff.

Market analysis of coupled biochar and carbon credit production from wildfire fuel reduction projects in the western USA

AbstractThe investment potential for biochar production from low‐value forest biomass in the western USA is over USD 20 billion at current carbon prices. This investment could generate approximately 70 million carbon credits annual – roughly the same number currently generated globally by all forestry and agricultural carbon projects. Biochar production that utilizes woody biomass specifically from wildfire fuel thinning projects as a feedstock can contribute financially to much‐needed fuel thinning projects. Each coupled biochar and carbon credit production system has positive returns in certain scenarios. Light upgrades to existing biopower facilities have the highest returns, with internal rates of return generally between 10–30%. Mobile biochar production often had the lowest returns. However, land managers can subsidize mobile biochar production up to USD 150–300 per tonne of biochar and still save money in comparison with pile‐burning low‐value biomass while also generating approximately one carbon credit for every two bone‐dry tonnes of low‐value biomass turned to biochar. The critical barrier to industry growth is the lack of transparent biomass supply chains that enable long‐term contracting for feedstock, production schedules, and investment. Moving forward, there are three potential pathways for the biochar industry to scale and utilize biomass from forest management and fuel thinning projects. Either (1) the carbon market will need to sustain high carbon prices, (2) a subsidy or other mechanism will need to decrease the cost of feedstock biomass, or (3) production will need to take advantage of economies of scale to bring down biochar prices while increasing production.

Assessment of vegetation cover changes and the contributing factors in the Al-Ahsa Oasis using Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)

The abandonment of date palm grove of the former Al-Ahsa Oasis in the eastern region of Saudi Arabia has resulted in the conversion of delicate agricultural area into urban area. The current state of the oasis is influenced by both expansion and degradation factors. Therefore, it is important to study the spatiotemporal variation of vegetation cover for the sustainable management of oasis resources. This study used Landsat satellite images in 1987, 2002, and 2021 to monitor the spatiotemporal variation of vegetation cover in the Al-Ahsa Oasis, applied multi-temporal Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) data spanning from 1987 to 2021 to assess environmental and spatiotemporal variations that have occurred in the Al-Ahsa Oasis, and investigated the factors influencing these variation. This study reveals that there is a significant improvement in the ecological environment of the oasis during 1987–2021, with increase of NDVI values being higher than 0.10. In 2021, the highest NDVI value is generally above 0.70, while the lowest value remains largely unchanged. However, there is a remarkable increase in NDVI values between 0.20 and 0.30. The area of low NDVI values (0.00–0.20) has remained almost stable, but the region with high NDVI values (above 0.70) expands during 1987–2021. Furthermore, this study finds that in 1987–2002, the increase of vegetation cover is most notable in the northern region of the study area, whereas from 2002 to 2021, the increase of vegetation cover is mainly concentrated in the northern and southern regions of the study area. From 1987 to 2021, NDVI values exhibit the most pronounced variation, with a significant increase in the “green” zone (characterized by NDVI values exceeding 0.40), indicating a substantial enhancement in the ecological environment of the oasis. The NDVI classification is validated through 50 ground validation points in the study area, demonstrating a mean accuracy of 92.00% in the detection of vegetation cover. In general, both the user’s and producer’s accuracies of NDVI classification are extremely high in 1987, 2002, and 2021. Finally, this study suggests that environmental authorities should strengthen their overall forestry project arrangements to combat sand encroachment and enhance the ecological environment of the Al-Ahsa Oasis.

Forestry offsets under China’s certificated emission reduction (CCER) for carbon neutrality: regulatory gaps and the ways forward

PurposeAs a typical nature-based solution to climate change, forestry carbon sinks are vital to achieving carbon neutrality in China. However, regulations in China are insufficient to promote the development of carbon offset projects in forestry. This study aims to identify the regulatory obstacles impeding the development of forestry offsets under China’s certified emission reduction (CCER) and explore ways to improve the regulatory system.Design/methodology/approachThis study conducts a qualitative analysis using a normative legal research method. This study conducted a synthetic review of national and local regulatory documents to gain insights into the regulatory landscape of forestry offsets in China. The main contents and characteristics of these documents are illustrated. Furthermore, related secondary literature was reviewed to gain further insight into forestry offset regulations and to identify significant gaps in China’s CCER regulation.FindingsForestry offset regulations under the CCER are characterized by fragmentation and a relatively lower legally binding force. There is no systematic institutional arrangement for forestry offset development, impeding market expectations and increasing transaction costs. The main challenges in China’s regulation of forestry carbon sinks include entitlement ambiguity, complicated rules for registration and verification, a lack of mechanisms for incentives, risk prevention and biodiversity protection.Originality/valueForestry carbon sinks’ multiple environmental and social values necessitate their effective development and utilization. This study assessed forestry offset regulations in China and proposed corresponding institutional arrangements to improve forestry carbon sink regulations under the CCER.

Adsorption of particulate matter and uptake of metal and non-metal elements from PM in leaves of Pinus densiflora and Quercus acutissima: a comparative study

Trees can serve as effective biofilters of Particulate matter (PM) pollution, making them valuable for managing air pollution and promoting public health. Leaves of trees can reduce PM through absorption, adsorption, and fallout mechanisms, which are influenced by species-specific characteristics and environmental factors. Although several studies have explored the impact of various leaf characteristics on their ability to adsorb PM from field conditions, few have been conducted in controlled chambers to analyze the adsorption of PM on leaf surfaces and the uptake of metal and non-metal elements from PM on leaves. To fill these knowledge gaps, this study investigated the PM adsorption and leaf characteristics of two different tree species, Pinus densiflora (an evergreen coniferous species) and Quercus acutissima (a deciduous broad-leaved species) under controlled conditions in a PM exposure chamber with a target concentration of 300 μg m−3. The main aim of this study was to measure and compare the rate of PM component (metal and non-metal elements) uptake in two species and investigate the leaf characteristics that contribute to PM adsorption. We investigated the relationship between PM adsorption and physiolog, micro-morphology, and chemical properties of the leaf surface in two species. This study used a Pearson’s correlation analysis and a principal component analysis (PCA) to evaluate correlation between PM adsorption and leaf characteristics and uptake of metal/non-metal elements in PM on leaves. This result showed that leaf characteristics such as stomatal size, leaf roughness, and wax content played a crucial role in PM10 adsorption, while physiological factors like transpiration and leaf boundary layer conductance were identified as important determinants of PM2.5 adsorption on plant leaves. It also observed significant variations in the uptake of aluminum, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, and sulfur. This study not only advances our understanding of the mechanisms behind PM adsorption by tree leaves but also underscores the importance of selecting appropriate tree species based on their leaf characteristics for urban forestry and green infrastructure projects. The ability to strategically use tree species for PM pollution mitigation highlights a practical approach to enhancing environmental sustainability and public health.

China's National Reserve Forest Project contribution to carbon neutrality and path to profitability

The National Reserve Forest Project (NRFP) is a forestry project launched by China in 2013 to ensure the safety of timber supply and create a carbon sink, which can contribute to China's future carbon neutrality goals. To evaluate the carbon neutral contribution and carbon sink benefits of the NRFP, it is necessary to estimate the carbon sink amount, carbon sink cost, and carbon sink price. A combined method, modified Hartman model, and Rubinstein-Stahl bargaining model were used to estimate and analyze the carbon sink amount, carbon sink cost, and carbon sink price of NRFPs from several typical NRFP zones to the nationwide level. Results show that: (1) if the yearly construction area of the NRFP keeps stable at 10.2 × 105 ha in the future, the carbon sink of NRFP will account for about 17.32%, 28.35%, and 80.00% of total carbon emissions in 2060 under low-, middle-, and high-policy scenarios, respectively, representing an increase compared to the current level of approximately 16%; (2) the weighted average carbon sink cost of NRFP is estimated to be 95.16 CNY/t CO2 e (lower than the average carbon sink cost of 150 CNY/t CO2 e), and several measures such as applying Public-private partnership investment (PPP), increasing project operation duration, and choosing construction areas with low farmland benefit can help further reduce carbon sink cost of NRRP; (3) the reasonable carbon sink price should fall between the carbon sink cost and marginal carbon emission reduction cost of enterprises, and increasing the carbon sink price has a positive impact on NRFP construction. NRFPs suffer economic losses in the present carbon trade market, but they will gradually become profitable with the rising carbon sink price in the future. Therefore, it is imperative to maintain or gradually expand the construction area, provide more financial support, and improve the carbon trading market of NRFPs.

EFFECTIVE DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRY THROUGH USE OF NEW TOOLS AND MECHANISMS

The development of the industry stimulates the functioning of environmental projects related to agriculture, renewable energy sources, and environmentally friendly industry. Improving the system of “green” lending in banks contributes to the development of the private sector on new terms, which implies maximum preservation of natural resources and receiving more profit than from traditional projects. When issuing loans for the development of sustainable entrepreneurship, the banking sector seeks to support clients in the transition to sustainable solutions, since the conservation of resources and the creation of energy-saving technologies determine the future capabilities of the state. Green loans are an effective and significant tool for the development of sustainable entrepreneurship in the industry. And the conditions and procedure for issuing them are the mechanism through which the industry develops. Green loans can also be issued for projects of large clients in support of the industry, which meets the requirements of the SEB system. By choosing a green loan to finance a project, the enterprise becomes part of a sustainable management system. The most relevant areas for obtaining "green" loans are: renewable energy (solar, wind, tidal energy, bioenergy; energy efficiency - in relation to district heating or cooling; clean transport - non-fossil fuels or hybrid transport solutions; waste management - energy from waste and methane capture projects, as well as projects to reduce waste through process improvement; emission reduction - reduction of emissions of particulate matter, heavy metals and dioxins through physical, chemical, mechanical means; sustainable forestry - forestry projects with a forest management certificate or equivalent scheme certification; water and wastewater treatment – drinking water production, wastewater treatment, water resources management.

Research on Option Pricing Strategies for Forestry Carbon Sinks Based on Black-Scholes Modeling-Take Sanming City as an Example

Sanming City, Fujian Province, is known as the green capital of China. This paper focuses on the local forestry carbon sink projects in Sanming City and analyzes their carbon trading prices based on the real option pricing theory and the Black-Scholes model and concludes that the value of the forestry carbon sink projects in Sanming City has been underestimated. This paper seizes the undervalued situation and puts forward certain suggestions for working on projects to develop forestry carbon sink in Sanming, such as increasing the well-being of residents by utilizing forestry carbon sink projects, increasing the number of trading entities in the carbon market, and perfecting the carbon trading market, etc. It also points out that the rationalization of forestry carbon sink products should be carried out reasonably. At the same time, it also points out the significance of reasonable pricing of forestry carbon sink products for the local carbon trading market, which leads to the significance of the rational development of forestry carbon sinks for China’s green development.

Synergizing Sustainable Solutions: Exploring the Nexus of Food Security and Social Forestry in Bangladesh

Social forestry is centered on managing forests with a focus on the well-being of nearby communities, aiming to elevate impoverished populations by offering employment opportunities and addressing basic needs such as food, fodder, fuel, furniture, and resources. Through these efforts, social forestry not only fosters self-reliance among disadvantaged groups but also contributes to broader developmental goals. In our study, we aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of social forestry in improving the lives of rural poor individuals. We conducted a review using secondary data, selecting articles based on specific criteria and analyzing information from 16 chosen articles. Our investigation revealed that factors such as income, household size, education, staple food costs, and the gender of the household head significantly influence household food security, and social forestry initiatives can lead to considerable benefits. Our findings indicate that individuals without land are particularly engaged in social forestry projects, resulting in increased income levels, with some experiencing earnings exceeding $666. This approach also supports shifting cultivators, enhancing their livelihoods and expanding forested areas in the region. Furthermore, the adoption of agroforestry within social forestry plots has led to a notable shift, with approximately 64% of people transitioning to agroforestry practices, thereby augmenting rural women's incomes by up to $300. Overall, social forestry has contributed to a 31% increase in forested areas in Bangladesh. However, challenges such as confusion and high interest rates deter farmers from participating in social forestry initiatives. Addressing these issues could significantly enhance the popularity and income-generating potential of social forestry for rural communities.

The Carbon Stock Change of Vegetation and Soil in the Forest Due to Forestry Projects

The Carbon Stock Change of Vegetation and Soil in the Forest Due to Forestry Projects

Boundary Spanning Methodological Approaches for Collaborative Moose Governance in Eeyou Istchee

Natural resource governance challenges are often highly complex, particularly in Indigenous contexts. These challenges involve numerous landscape-level interactions, spanning jurisdictional, disciplinary, social, and ecological boundaries. In Eeyou Istchee, the James Bay Cree Territory of northern Quebec, Canada, traditional livelihoods depend on wild food species like moose. However, these species are increasingly being impacted by forestry and other resource development projects. The complex relationships between moose, resource development, and Cree livelihoods can limit shared understandings and the ability of diverse actors to respond to these pressures. Contributing to this complexity are the different knowledge systems held by governance actors who, while not always aligned, have broadly shared species conservation and sustainable development goals. This paper presents fuzzy cognitive mapping (FCM) as a methodological approach used to help elicit and interpret the knowledge of land-users concerning the impacts of forest management on moose habitat in Eeyou Istchee. We explore the difficulties of weaving this knowledge together with the results of moose GPS collar analysis and the knowledges of scientists and government agencies. The ways in which participatory, relational mapping approaches can be applied in practice, and what they offer to pluralistic natural resource governance research more widely, are then addressed.

Driving factors of tree biomass and soil carbon pool in xerophytic forests of northeastern Argentina

BackgroundThe conversion of forests into agricultural lands can be a threat because the forests carbon stored could be a source of emissions. The capacity to improve the predictions on the consequences of land use change depends on the identification of factors that influence carbon pools. We investigated the key driving factors of tree biomass and soil carbon pools in xerophytic forests in northeastern Argentina. Based on analyses of forest structure variables and abiotic factors (topography and soil properties) from 18 mature forests, we evaluated carbon pools using uni- and multivariate (redundancy analysis) methods.ResultsThe total carbon pool was estimated at 102.4 ± 24.0 Mg ha−1. Soil organic carbon storage is the single largest carbon pool relative to tree biomass, representing 73.1% of total carbon. Tree canopy cover and basal area were positively correlated with biomass carbon pool (r = 0.77 and r = 0.73, p < 0.001, respectively), proving to be significant drivers of carbon storage in this compartment. Slope, soil clay content and cation-exchange capacity had a better explanation for the variability in soil carbon pools, and all showed significant positive correlations with soil carbon pools (r = 0.64, 0.60 and 0.50; p < 0.05, respectively). The vertisols showed a 27.8% higher soil carbon stock than alfisols.ConclusionsThe relevance of our study stems from a dearth of information on carbon pools and their drivers in xerophytic forests, and in particular, the importance of this ecosystems’ type for Argentina, because they cover 81.9% of native forest area. Basal area and tree canopy cover exert a strong effect on the carbon pool in tree biomass but not in the soil. The results suggests that there is a potentially major SOC accumulation in forests located in slightly sloping areas and soils with higher topsoil clay content, such as vertisols. This could provide an important reference for implementing forestry carbon sink projects.

Unsupervised Methodology for Large-Scale Tree Seedling Mapping in Diverse Forestry Settings Using UAV-Based RGB Imagery

Mapping and monitoring tree seedlings is essential for reforestation and restoration efforts. However, achieving this on a large scale, especially during the initial stages of growth, when seedlings are small and lack distinct morphological features, can be challenging. An accurate, reliable, and efficient method that detects seedlings using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) could significantly reduce survey costs. In this study, we used an unsupervised approach to map young conifer seedlings utilising spatial, spectral, and structural information from UAV digital aerial photogrammetric (UAV-DAP) point clouds. We tested our method across eight trial stands of radiata pine with a wide height range (0.4–6 m) that comprised a total of ca. 100 ha and spanned diverse site conditions. Using this method, seedling detection was excellent, with an overall precision, sensitivity, and F1 score of 95.2%, 98.0%, and 96.6%, respectively. Our findings demonstrated the importance of combining spatial, spectral, and structural metrics for seedling detection. While spectral and structural metrics efficiently filtered out non-vegetation objects and weeds, they struggled to differentiate planted seedlings from regenerating ones due to their similar characteristics, resulting in a large number of false positives. The inclusion of a row segment detection algorithm overcame this limitation and successfully identified most regenerating seedlings, leading to a significant reduction in false positives and an improvement in overall detection accuracy. Our method generated vector files containing seedling positions and key structural characteristics (seedling height, crown dimensions), offering valuable outputs for precision management. This automated pipeline requires fewer resources and user inputs compared to manual annotations or supervised techniques, making it a rapid, cost-effective, and scalable solution which is applicable without extensive training data. While serving as primarily a standalone tool for assessing forestry projects, the proposed method can also complement supervised seedling detection methods like machine learning, i.e., by supplementing training datasets.

Mechanisms of Forestry Carbon Sink Policies on Land Use Efficiency: A Perspective from the Drivers of Policy Implementation

Rapid urbanization has brought economic dividends to China, but it has been accompanied by inefficient land use. Meanwhile, the mechanism of forestry carbon sinks (FCSs) on land use efficiency (LUE) has not been sufficiently discussed in the context of the pursuit of “carbon neutrality” around the world. Based on the idea of the benefit–cost theory, this study investigated the impact of FCSs on LUE in 30 provincial-level regions (2006–2019) in China using the difference-in-difference model. The results showed that, first, via the mechanisms of public opinion (PO) and rewards and penalties (RP), FCSs could significantly improve the LUE in the regions, and that the former had a greater effect than the latter; second, the tests of the assumption of parallel trends showed that FCSs had a slower effect on the LUE under the PO mechanism than under the RP mechanism; third, the analysis of the LUE showed that the improvement in LUE mainly occurred in the eastern, central, and southwestern regions of China. The conclusions were as follows: (1) FCS is able to promote LUE via both the PO and RP mechanisms; (2) there is a lag in the promotion of LUE by FCS, and the lag is larger with the PO mechanism; and (3) there is spatial clustering in the promotion of LUE by FCS. In line with these conclusions, we propose policy recommendations to better exploit the policy effects of FCSs in three aspects, namely promoting the development of forestry carbon sink projects, improving the relevant mechanisms of FCSs, and improving the mechanisms of PO and RP.