Forestry Production Systems Research Articles

Harnessing the potential of endophytes: Sustainable solutions for enhancing forage crop resilience and soil fertility

Environmental changes pose significant challenges to sustainable agriculture, adversely affecting crop production and soil fertility. Factors such as drought, salinity, pathogens, and soil type exert their influence on the behavior of fodder crops by altering their morphological, biochemical, and molecular mechanisms, ultimately leading to reduced yields and productivity. Consequently, there is a pressing need to develop mitigation strategies aimed at enhancing the tolerance of forage crops to both biotic and abiotic stresses, addressing a critical challenge in sustaining their growth.
 In recent times, the use of biofertilizers has emerged as an environmentally friendly alternative to chemical fertilizers, holding promise for sustainable horticultural, agricultural, and forestry production systems. Notably, endophytic microorganisms play a pivotal role in promoting plant growth through direct or indirect mechanisms. Additionally, endophytic bacteria actively regulate gene expression responsible for the production of antioxidant enzymes, various phytohormones, siderophores, and ROS scavenging enzymes, all of which contribute to supporting the growth of host plants even in extreme environments. Consequently, there is a growing focus on understanding and validating the mechanisms through which beneficial plant endophytes interact to combat both biotic and abiotic stresses.
 This review emphasizes the potential of endophytes as biofertilizers, biocontrol agents, and contributors to the mitigation of abiotic and biotic stresses, all of which play crucial roles in maintaining the development of forage crops and soil fertility.

Greenhouse gas emissions and carbon sequestration associated with Integrated Crop–Livestock–Forestry (ICLF) systems

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the Agriculture, Forest, and Other Land Use sector account for 23% of net global anthropogenic emissions. However, effective conservation agriculture practices can sequester carbon (C) up to 1 m in soil depth and vegetation biomass. Integrated Crop–Livestock–Forestry (ICLF) systems attempt to ensure sustainable agricultural production by combining various agricultural, livestock, and forestry production systems. This bibliographic review aims to present and discuss ICLF systems and their advantages and disadvantages compared with conventional systems, achieving a better understanding of the sources and sinks of GHGs (CH4, N2O, and CO2). Integrated systems exist in tropical and temperate climates with different practices, arrangements, designs, and modalities. Intercropping species with different root structures provides more ecological interactions that enhance biodiversity, soil quality, and C sequestration while reducing GHG emissions. Yet, ICLF systems are complex and require technical assistance and support for being implemented, besides an extensive initial investment that increases the cost of operation. A relevant carbon sink in ICLF systems is carbon from tree biomass, where the wood can be used for various purposes. Timber for sawmills and general construction has a longer C immobilization time. Methane from enteric fermentation is the greatest contributor to GHG emissions in livestock and ICLF systems. Nitrous oxide is released primarily from synthetic fertilizers (when applied), manure deposited on pastures, and the decomposition of plant residues. Carbon dioxide is emitted to a lesser extent from the application of lime and urea. Many studies do not include all compartments in the C balance and often focus on only one GHG or compartment of C. Accordingly, more studies on the sources and sinks of C and their potential to offset GHG emissions in terms of CO2 equivalent are urged.

Diversity of Agroforestry Systems Associated with Vegetable Plots in the Municipality of Thionck-Essyl (Bignona Department, Senegal)

In Senegal, as in the sub-Saharan zone, tree and shrub species are generally introduced into the fields and thus constitute an integral part of agricultural, forestry, and pastoral production systems called agroforestry systems. With a view to better management of these systems, this study aimed to contribute to a better understanding of these agrarian systems in Lower Casamance. To this end, surveys of woody vegetation were conducted in seven (07) of the 14 market garden blocks in the commune of Thionck-Essyl. On the basis of a survey rate of 25% in relation to the surface area, 15 square plots of 2500 m2 each were installed. The woody flora of these agroforestry systems included 31 species divided into 25 genera belonging to 14 botanical families. The basal area, the cover rate, and the observed density of woody plants are respectively 6 m2·ha-1; 46% and 67% individuals ha-1. The most frequent species in these agroforestry systems are Elaeis guineensis Jacq. (85%), Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck (71%) and Mangifera indica L. (71%). The dominant height class is [2 - 4 m] with 23% of the woody stand in these agroforestry systems. The horizontal structure is characterized by a good representation of individuals with a diameter between 5 and 15 cm (31%). This study constitutes the basis of information necessary for more rational management of these agrarian systems so important in the life of the populations of the commune of Thionck-Essyl.

The bio-based economy, 2030 Agenda, and strong sustainability – A regional-scale assessment of sustainability goal interactions

Policy-makers face the challenge of assessing and implementing sustainability measures, while also dealing with parallel and sometimes conflicting policy agendas, long-term policy impacts, and contested interpretations of sustainability. To support evidence-based decision-making in this context, this paper presents the results from an integrated assessment of sustainability goal interactions. Links between the bio-based economy, the 2030 Agenda, and the so-called strong sustainability paradigm were explored in a regional-scale case. The analysis focused primarily on developments in the forestry and energy sectors. Direct trade-offs and synergies as well as broader systemic impacts were identified. The results show how goals from the bio-based economy, 2030 Agenda and strong sustainability paradigm are mutually interacting. Positive interactions were found within two clusters of goals, offering coherent and synergetic transition pathways within these. The first cluster encompasses developments toward intensified forestry, renewable energy, and closed-loop production systems. The second pathway supports diversified forestry and protection of critical natural capital. However, while internally coherent, trade-offs were identified between these goal clusters, demonstrating the difficulty in simultaneously making progress on goals belonging to different sustainability agendas. The results also stress the need for disaggregation and long-term assessments to identify trade-offs and synergies. Finally, the analysis highlights the theoretical potential but practical challenges of implementing the bio-based economy and 2030 Agenda in a way that adheres to strong sustainability. The analytical framework used in the present study may be adapted and applied to other decision-making contexts. It is particularly useful in settings characterized by uncertainty and unstructured problem spaces.

Editorial: Identifying agri-food research priorities for Spain - 2017 results

Among other functions, the INIA is involved in national and international cooperation in the field of agri-food research. The process of identifying and classifying gaps in our knowledge forms an essential part of this effort. This article describes that process, the tools and the materials used to achieve the final objective, namely, the identification of research priorities in the Spanish agri-food sector in order to deal with the societal challenges posed by society and the stakeholders involved. These challenges, within the context of the bioeconomy, are the sustainability of primary and forestry production systems, the safety and quality of food and bioproducts as well as the competitiveness of farmers and companies in this sector. It is necessary to optimize resource management and means of production along with improved efficiency to guarantee sustainability throughout the value chain process. The main goal, under the current scenario of climate change, is to develop models which lead to a balance between food quality and production costs (competitiveness and economic sustainability), ecosystem conservation and mitigation of the environmental impacts (environmental sustainability) while maintaining the population in rural areas (social sustainability). These models will be based on new technology in both intensive and extensive production systems. They should support the improvement and valuation of traditional products together with the formulation and development of foods with new functionalities and quality while at the same time ensuring safety. As well as satisfying consumer demand, improved knowledge must lead to a more efficient use of our own resources and by-products within the framework of a circular economy, including the development of bioproducts, eco-innovation and eco-design.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions from an Ornamental Crop as Impacted by Two Best Management Practices: Irrigation Delivery and Fertilizer Placement1

Abstract Agriculture is one of the largest contributors of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. To date, much work on reducing GHG emissions has centered on row crops, pastures, forestry, and animal production systems, while little emphasis has been placed on specialty crop industries such as horticulture. In this horticulture container study, Japanese boxwood (Buxus microphylla Siebold & Zucc.) was used to evaluate the interaction of irrigation (overhead vs drip) and fertilizer placement (dibble vs incorporated) on GHG emissions (CO2, N2O, and CH4). Plants were grown in 11.4 L (#3) containers with a 6:1 pine bark:sand substrate with standard amendments. All containers received 6.35 mm (0.25 in) water three times daily. Gas samples were collected in situ using the static closed chamber method according to standard protocols and analyzed using gas chromatography. Total cumulative CO2 loss was not affected by differences in irrigation or fertilizer placement. Total cumulative N2O efflux was least for drip-irrigated plants, regardless of fertilizer placement. For overhead-irrigated plants, N2O efflux was greatest for those with incorporated fertilizer. Efflux of CH4 was generally low throughout the study. Findings suggest that utilizing drip irrigation could decrease N2O emissions, regardless of fertilizer placement. However, when limited to overhead irrigation, dibbled fertilizer placement could decrease N2O emissions. Index words: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, trace gas Species used in this study: Japanese boxwood (Buxus microphylla Siebold & Zucc.)

Ecoservices and multifunctional landscapes: Balancing the benefits of integrated ES-based water resources, agricultural and forestry production systems

Ecosystem services (ES) are a powerful tool in assessing the relationships that people have with their surrounding tangible environment and the more distant intangible global benefits. Ecoservices are often studied in parallel or viewed as linear, and this misunderstanding or ignorance of the complex interaction among ecoservices may lead to poor or inappropriate land and water management decisions. Quantitatively understanding and establishing the risk to the complex functional relationships among ES impacted by the introduction of alternate production systems requires a new pathway to better decision making.Ecoservices are often interrelated in dynamic and complex ways and provide an avenue, if appropriately coupled, to a more balanced land use-land cover (LULC) multifunctional production system. Variable land use intensities and landscape configurations impact differentially on selected ecosystem functions and services. Anthropogenic activities impact this functionality and require an innovative analytical approach to building an integrated multifunctional ES analytical framework (IMESAF); an approach that spans diverse fields of inquiry.An IMESAF would need to incorporate a variety of ecoservices-based best practice production systems that can elucidate balanced land use scenarios to deliver better environmental and productivity outcomes. In addition, this framework requires policy, economic, sustainability, monitoring and evaluation indices to provide guidance on intermediate and long-term effects of an ecoservices-based production and planning system. This paper provides a synthesis of ideas for creating the framework and how it may underpin balanced land use and investment choices.

Emisión de gases de efecto invernadero por uso de combustibles fósiles en Ibagué, Tolima (Colombia)

<p>El cambio climático es causado por el aumento de las concentraciones de los gases de efecto invernadero (gei), especialmente, por el CO2. Estas concentraciones son provocadas por la proliferación del uso de combustibles fósiles. Los sistemas forestales pueden absorber carbono en la biomasa y mitigar el problema del cambio climático. El objetivo del estudio fue estimar la emisión de gei de acuerdo con la venta de combustibles fósiles en Ibagué y plantear opciones de mitigación con sistemas de producción en el Tolima. Mediante revisión de literatura, se determinó el número de estaciones de servicio en el casco urbano de Ibagué. A través de encuestas a empleados que atienden al público, se estimó la venta de cada combustible estudiado (gasolina, diésel y gas natural vehicular-gnv) y, con base en la totalidad de estaciones y en los factores de emisión, se calculó la emisión total de gei para cada uno de estos combustibles en la ciudad. Se plantearon opciones de mitigación como cafetales, cacaotales o plantaciones de teca. Se estimó una emisión de 368 Gg CO2e/año (1 Gg = 10⁹ g) por ventas de combustibles fósiles equivalente a 718 kg CO2e/persona/año. Estas emisiones deberían ser mitigadas con reducciones en el uso de combustibles fósiles o mediante el establecimiento de sistemas de producción que fijen el CO2.</p>

Editorial: Ecological Consequences of Biodiversity and Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry.

Editorial: Ecological Consequences of Biodiversity and Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry.

An economic analysis of biochar production using residues from Eucalypt plantations

Producing biochar from organic residues is a potential method to integrate carbon sequestration and residue management costs while enhancing conventional agricultural and forestry production systems. Plantation forestry is an important industry in Tasmania, and is based on large scale plantations of Pinus radiata and Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus and E. nitens). The area covered by forestry plantations in Tasmania (on State land) exceeds 100 000 ha, while plantations on private land double this number. Eucalypt plantations are managed primarily for the production of high-value pruned logs for industry; however, unpruned saw logs, peelers, poles, posts and pulp are also produced, and significant quantities of residue are produced as a byproduct. This study was an economic analysis that considered on-site biochar production system using post-harvest forestry residues, with biochar being utilized within the system, or sold as a product. The financial analysis was based on previous experimental outcomes on the use of Macadamia shell biochar in Eucalyptus nitens plantations, and the local operating environment in Tasmania; including current forestry procedures used for managing plantations. A number of assumptions were considered concerning a) production costs, b) savings enjoyed by traditional operations, following biochar scenario implementation, and c) biochar sales. The analysis revealed a potential annual income of over 179 k$ (2014 value) and the sensitivity analysis identified the crucial factors responsible for scenario profitability, namely biochar price and final product distribution.

Increasing the Scientific Evidence Base in the “High Conservation Value” (HCV) Approach for Biodiversity Conservation in Managed Tropical Landscapes

AbstractLand‐use change is a major driver of tropical biodiversity declines. The “High Conservation Value” (HCV) approach aims to protect critical environmental and social values in production landscapes, and is a common feature of many voluntary certification schemes (e.g., Forest Stewardship Council, Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil). Despite the popularity of the HCV approach within forestry and agriculture production systems, it is little known in academia and the scientific evidence base supporting it is not well developed. By raising the profile of the HCV approach, we hope to instigate new research to examine the impact of the HCV approach on biodiversity conservation. We argue for better knowledge exchange between scientists, policy makers, and HCV users, sharing of information, and consideration of the practical constraints within which HCV users and commodity producers operate. Given the continuing loss and degradation of tropical rainforests, such strategies are required urgently to reduce biodiversity losses in production landscapes.

Sustainability Assessment of Certified Tropical Forestry using Emergy Analysis

Sustainable forestry production systems, such as certified forestry, re- duced impact logging or sustainable forest management, have become an important part of tropical countries’ strategy to oversee their forest re- sources. Particularly, certification of forest products has become a widely adopted practice as a response to a growing international concern over the ecological and economic sustainability of harvesting natural tropical forests because of the benefits on reducing excessive and unnecessary construction of forest roads, reducing excessive use of heavy machinery, diminishing excessive collateral damage, and improving the inefficient milling processes and wasting of residues. To accomplish the aim of this study, which is to compare conventional and certified forestry we used a systems analysis tool that could integrate various benefits of certified forestry including, stand age, wood harvest, soil losses and economic gain or loss. We found that the affected area under uncertified logging practices is twice the area of certified forestry because conventional prac- tices require more roads, more logging decks and more skid trails. Also, the rate of soil erosion between uncertified logging (154 Mg/ha/yr) and certified logging (66 Mg/ha/yr) is different. Based on these data, we es- timated that the total emergy removed from certified forests was 40% less than the forest under conventional forestry. The fact that certification does a better job of preserving forest while removing wood was also demonstrated through the Environmental Loading Ratio (ELR). We also found that certification leaves forests with a 30% better chance to recover after logging because less wood is removed. But forestry using certifica- tion showed a lower Emergy Yield Ratio (EYR) because the lower yield and the extra cost of certification. Certification is also favored for the higher price for certified wood in international markets. Then, when Bo- livia exports uncertified wood, it obtains a positive benefit, but lower than using uncertified wood domestically (EYR = 20.4). In other words the worst thing the country could do is certify wood for their domestic market and sell uncertified wood abroad.

The National Institute of Food and Agriculture: Addressing the agricultural impacts of and vulnerabilities to climate change

There can be no doubt that agricultural, forestry, and range production systems and natural systems are dramatically affected by climate variability and change. Producers, land managers, and other decision makers need information, technologies, and decision-support tools about greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation, adaptation strategies, and policy outcomes. Crop, animal, forest, range, and even urban and rural management approaches must take climate variability into account to implement adaptation strategies and improve sustainability over the long term. The potential for forests and agricultural lands to serve as carbon (C) sinks and to reduce GHG emissions must be quantified to support sound policies and environmental markets. Outreach and extension networks must be implemented to employ climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies in management practices and to use scientific findings for restoration projects, planning, interventions, and prescriptions. The 2008 Farm Bill passed by the United States Congress called for the establishment of the USDA's National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA). As a replacement for the former Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, NIFA had a new mandate to serve as USDA's extramural science agency. Under its flagship competitive grants program, the Agriculture and Food Research Initiative (AFRI), NIFA identified a set of grand…

TRACE GAS EMISSIONS FROM NURSERY CROP PRODUCTION USING DIFFERENT FERTILIZATION METHODS©

Research on agriculture’s role in mitigation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has been conducted in row crop, forestry, and animal production systems, but there has been little focus on contributions from specialty industries such as horticulture. Our objective was to determine efflux patterns of CO2, CH4, and N2O associated with three different fertilization methods (dibble, incorporated, and topdressed) commonly used in nursery container production. Dibbling fertilizer reduced CO2 emissions when compared to incorporation or topdressing. Dibbling and topdressing reduced N2O emissions (68 and 70%, respectively) when compared to the incorporated treatment. These data begin to provide evidence of mitigation strategies which can be implemented in container plant production to help growers adapt to possible future legislation, improve the environmental impact from the industry, and benefit financially from potential carbon trading or offset programs.

Determining Trace Gas Efflux from Container Production of Woody Nursery Crops

Agriculture is a large contributor of trace gas emissions and much of the work on reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has focused on row crops and pastures, as well as forestry and animal production systems; however, little emphasis has been placed on specialty crop industries such as horticulture. Our objective was to determine efflux patterns of CO2, CH4, and N2O associated with four different nursery container sizes [3.0 liter (trade gal; TG), 3.8 liter (#1; 1 gal), 7.6 liter (#2; 2 gal), and 11.4 liter (#3; 3 gal) using dwarf yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria ‘Nana’ L.) grown under common production practices for one year. Weekly measurements indicated that carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O) fluxes were highest in the largest containers (#3). There was a significant positive relationship between container size and CO2 efflux. Nitrous oxide efflux followed a similar pattern, except there were no differences between the two smallest container sizes. In general, CO2 and N2O fluxes increased with increasing temperature. Methane flux was consistently low and had no significant effect on total trace gas emissions. Results from this study begin to address uncertainties regarding the environmental impact of the horticulture industry on climate change while providing baseline data of trace gas emissions from container production systems needed to develop future mitigation strategies.

Effects of Fertilizer Placement on Trace Gas Emissions from Nursery Container Production

Increased trace gas emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) are widely believed to be a primary cause of global warming. Agriculture is a large contributor to these emissions; however, its role in climate change is unique in that it can act as a source of trace gas emissions or it can act as a major sink. Furthermore, agriculture can significantly reduce emissions through changes in production management practices. Much of the research on agriculture’s role in mitigation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has been conducted in row crops and pastures as well as forestry and animal production systems with little focus on contributions from specialty crop industries such as horticulture. Our objective was to determine efflux patterns of CO2, CH4, and N2O associated with three different fertilization methods (dibble, incorporated, and topdressed) commonly used in nursery container production. Weekly measurements indicated that CO2 fluxes were slightly lower when fertilizer was dibbled compared with the other two methods. Nitrous oxide fluxes were consistently highest when fertilizer was incorporated. Methane flux was generally low with few differences among treatments. Results from this study begin to provide data that can be used to implement mitigation strategies in container plant production, which will help growers adapt to possible emission regulations and benefit from future GHG mitigation or offset programs.

An assessment of biomass for bioelectricity and biofuel, and for greenhouse gas emission reduction in Australia

AbstractWe provide a quantitative assessment of the prospects for current and future biomass feedstocks for bioenergy in Australia, and associated estimates of the greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation resulting from their use for production of biofuels or bioelectricity. National statistics were used to estimate current annual production from agricultural and forest production systems. Crop residues were estimated from grain production and harvest index. Wood production statistics and spatial modelling of forest growth were used to estimate quantities of pulpwood, in‐forest residues, and wood processing residues. Possible new production systems for oil from algae and the oil‐seed tree Pongamia pinnata, and of lignocellulosic biomass production from short‐rotation coppiced eucalypt crops were also examined. The following constraints were applied to biomass production and use: avoiding clearing of native vegetation; minimizing impacts on domestic food security; retaining a portion of agricultural and forest residues to protect soil; and minimizing the impact on local processing industries by diverting only the export fraction of grains or pulpwood to bioenergy. We estimated that it would be physically possible to produce 9.6 GL yr−1 of first generation ethanol from current production systems, replacing 6.5 GL yr−1 of gasoline or 34% of current gasoline usage. Current production systems for waste oil, tallow and canola seed could produce 0.9 GL yr−1 of biodiesel, or 4% of current diesel usage. Cellulosic biomass from current agricultural and forestry production systems (including biomass from hardwood plantations maturing by 2030) could produce 9.5 GL yr−1 of ethanol, replacing 6.4 GL yr−1 of gasoline, or ca. 34% of current consumption. The same lignocellulosic sources could instead provide 35 TWh yr−1, or ca. 15% of current electricity production. New production systems using algae and P. pinnata could produce ca. 3.96 and 0.9 GL biodiesel yr−1, respectively. In combination, they could replace 4.2 GL yr−1 of fossil diesel, or 23% of current usage. Short‐rotation coppiced eucalypt crops could provide 4.3 GL yr−1 of ethanol (2.9 GL yr−1 replacement, or 15% of current gasoline use) or 20.2 TWh yr−1 of electricity (9% of current generation). In total, first and second generation fuels from current and new production systems could mitigate 26 Mt CO2‐e, which is 38% of road transport emissions and 5% of the national emissions. Second generation fuels from current and new production systems could mitigate 13 Mt CO2‐e, which is 19% of road transport emissions and 2.4% of the national emissions lignocellulose from current and new production systems could mitigate 48 Mt CO2‐e, which is 28% of electricity emissions and 9% of the national emissions. There are challenging sustainability issues to consider in the production of large amounts of feedstock for bioenergy in Australia. Bioenergy production can have either positive or negative impacts. Although only the export fraction of grains and sugar was used to estimate first generation biofuels so that domestic food security was not affected, it would have an impact on food supply elsewhere. Environmental impacts on soil, water and biodiversity can be significant because of the large land base involved, and the likely use of intensive harvest regimes. These require careful management. Social impacts could be significant if there were to be large‐scale change in land use or management. In addition, although the economic considerations of feedstock production were not covered in this article, they will be the ultimate drivers of industry development. They are uncertain and are highly dependent on government policies (e.g. the price on carbon, GHG mitigation and renewable energy targets, mandates for renewable fuels), the price of fossil oil, and the scale of the industry.

Forests, food, and fuel in the tropics: the uneven social and ecological consequences of the emerging political economy of biofuels

The global political economy of biofuels emerging since 2007 appears set to intensify inequalities among the countries and rural peoples of the global South. Looking through a global political economy lens, this paper analyses the consequences of proliferating biofuel alliances among multinational corporations, governments, and domestic producers. Since many major biofuel feedstocks – such as sugar, oil palm, and soy – are already entrenched in industrial agricultural and forestry production systems, the authors extrapolate from patterns of production for these crops to bolster their argument that state capacities, the timing of market entry, existing institutions, and historical state-society land tenure relations will particularly affect the potential consequences of further biofuel development. Although the impacts of biofuels vary by region and feedstock, and although some agrarian communities in some countries of the global South are poised to benefit, the analysis suggests that already-vulnerable people and communities will bear a disproportionate share of the costs of biofuel development, particularly for biofuels from crops already embedded in industrial production systems. A core reason, this paper argues, is that the emerging biofuel alliances are reinforcing processes and structures that increase pressures on the ecological integrity of tropical forests and further wrest control of resources from subsistence farmers, indigenous peoples, and people with insecure land rights. Even the development of so-called ‘sustainable’ biofuels looks set to displace livelihoods and reinforce and extend previous waves of hardship for such marginalised peoples.

Road paving, fire regime feedbacks, and the future of Amazon forests

Fire poses the greatest threat to the forests of Amazônia. The magnitude of this threat is amplified by three positive feedback loops that drive the expansion of forest fire in the region: (1) Fire promotes drought, and therefore more fire, by releasing smoke into the atmosphere, thus reducing rainfall. Fire-assisted conversion of forests to pastures may also promote drought by increasing albedo and decreasing water vapor flux to the atmosphere, further inhibiting rainfall. (2) Fire increases the susceptibility of forests to recurrent burning by killing trees, thereby allowing sunlight to penetrate the forest interior, and increasing the fuel load on the forest floor. (3) Finally, fires also self-perpetuate by burning agricultural and forestry systems, discouraging landholders from making those fire-sensitive investments in their land that would allow them to move beyond their dependence upon fire as a management tool. The long-term reduction of Amazon fire, and its substantial costs to society, is most likely to emerge through investments and policy change that stimulate permanent agricultural and forestry production systems within existing frontiers while slowing the rate of frontier expansion. But the Brazilian government’s plan to pave, recuperate or construct 6245 km of roads in the Amazon may have the opposite effect. We present research findings that the government plan would nearly double the area of forestland that is accessible by paved highways, including 192,000 km 2 of fire-prone forest. Our analysis finds that these roads will stimulate 120,000–270,000 km 2 of additional deforestation, and forest impoverishment through logging and understory fire, if the historical relationship between road paving and forest alteration by humans continues. Infrastructural investments are urgently needed in Amazônia to help integrate isolated urban centers into the market economy, to improve the quality of life for millions of rural Amazonians, and to improve the profitability of agribusiness in Brazil’s agricultural belt. But as currently planned, these investments will have the ancillary effects of accelerating deforestation, logging, forest fire, smoke-related illness, and the displacement of small-scale farmers.

Forschung zur Vielfalt, vielfältige Forschung: Ziele und Wege der Forstgenetik | Research on diversity, diverse research: objectives and approaches in forest genetics

The genetic information about forest trees is not only of crucial importance for the yield of forestry production systems,but also for determining the evolutionary adaptive potential of tree populations. Thus, the stability of forest ecosystems depends on the sustainable management of forest genetic resources. In this context, tree breeding and conservation of forest genetic resources are mentioned as main applications of research in forest genetics. Genetic inventories are conducted in order to observe the spatial distribution of genetic information at gene marker loci. Such studies allow us to elucidate the evolutionary history of populations and, thus, to draw conclusions about their evolutionary adaptability. Results of a genetic inventory of oak (Quercus spp.) populations native to Switzerland are presented, and their significance for the characterization of genetic systems and adaptive potential is discussed. Future research into forest genetics should aim at improving our understanding of the relationship between variation at biochemical and molecular marker loci and adaptive processes in forest tree populations. The temporal dynamics of genetic structures of forest tree populations as a consequence of anthropogenic environmental change is another important topic of forest genetics in particular for the conservation of rare species.