Intensification Of Forestry Research Articles

Challenges and Solutions for Forest Biodiversity Conservation in Sweden: Assessment of Policy, Implementation Outputs, and Consequences

Swedish policies aim at conserving biological production, biodiversity, cultural heritage and recreational assets. This requires compositionally and structurally functional networks of representative habitats, the processes that maintain them, and resilient ecosystems. The term green infrastructure (GI) captures this. We review (1) policy concerning forest biodiversity conservation from the 1990s; (2) the implementation outputs, including the formulation of short-term and evidence-based long-term goals for protected areas, education, and the development of hierarchical spatial planning; (3) the consequences in terms of formally protected and voluntarily set-aside forest stands, as well as conservation management and habitat restoration. We assess the successes and failures regarding policy, outputs and consequences, discuss challenges to be addressed, and suggest solutions. Policies capture evidence-based knowledge about biodiversity, and evidence-based conservation planning as an output. However, the desired consequences are not met on the ground. Thus, the amount of formally protected and voluntary set-aside forests are presently too low, and have limited quality and poor functional connectivity. GI functionality is even declining because of forestry intensification, and insufficient conservation. Challenges include limited collaborative learning among forest and conservation planners, poor funding to conserve forest habitats with sufficient size, quality and connectivity, and national politics that ignores evidence-based knowledge. As solutions, we highlight the need for diversification of forest management systems with a landscape perspective that matches forest owner objectives and regional social-ecological contexts. This requires integrative approaches to knowledge production, learning and spatial planning.

Опыт создания лесных культур посадочным материалом с закрытой корневой системой

Intensification of forestry requires the use of modern methods of reforestation, which include the introduction of container planting material. The purpose of this work is to evaluate the survival rate and linear growth of spruce container seedlings depending on the planting site location and the agrotechnical tending. The studies were carried out at the test site located in the Tomsk district of the Tomsk region. It was found that many planting containers store not 1 seedling, but 2–4 pcs and therefore approximately the same quantity of seedlings as in the traditional planting of container planting material. It was revealed that the height of 30–35 % of seedlings fails to fulfill the standard values, which was observed, as a rule, in the planting containers with several plants. According to the autumn inventory data, the height of plantations created by planting seedlings in the furrow bottom (Kruskal-Wallis test, p = 0.0001 > 0.05) reliably differs from the height of plantations of “mound” and “untreated soil” options. In terms of height growth, the options “mound side” and “furrow” have the best performance, also significantly different from the options “mound” and “untreated soil” (Kruskal-Wallis test, p = 0.0001 > 0.05). Survival rate below 85 % was observed in the plantings of the following options: “untreated soil”, “furrow bottom”, and “mound” with agrotechnical tending. The 3-fold tending decreased the survival rate of plantations except for planting in the mound side. Thus, the most successful option of planting is planting in the mound side. For citation: Debkov N.M. Experience in the Creation of Forest Plantations Using Container Seedlings. Lesnoy Zhurnal [Russian Forestry Journal], 2021, no. 5, pp. 192–200. DOI: 10.37482/0536-1036-2021-5-192-200

Effects of Forestry Intensification and Conservation on Green Infrastructures: A Spatio-Temporal Evaluation in Sweden

There is a rivalry between policies on intensification of forest management to meet the demands of a growing bioeconomy, and policies on green infrastructure functionality. Evaluation of the net effects of different policy instruments on real-world outcomes is crucial. First, we present data on final felling rates in wood production landscapes and stand age distribution dynamic in two case study regions, and changes in dead wood amounts in Sweden. Second, the growth of formally protected areas was compiled and changes in functional connectivity analysed in these regions, and the development of dead wood and green tree retention in Sweden was described. The case studies were the counties Dalarna and Jämtland (77,000 km2) representing an expanding frontier of boreal forest transformation. In the wood production landscape, official final felling rates averaged 0.84%/year, extending the regional timber frontier. The amount of forest <60 years old increased from 27–34% in 1955 to 60–65% in 2017. The amounts of dead wood, a key forest naturalness indicator, declined from 1994 to 2016 in north Sweden, and increased in the south, albeit both at levels far below evidence-based biodiversity targets. Formal forest protection grew rapidly in the two counties from 1968 to 2020 but reached only 4% of productive forests. From 2000 to 2019, habitat network functionality for old Scots pine declined by 15–41%, and Norway spruce by 15–88%. There were mixed trends for dead wood and tree retention at the stand scale. The net result of the continued transformation of near-natural forest remnants and conservation efforts was negative at the regional and landscape levels, but partly positive at the stand scale. However, at all three scales, habitat amounts were far below critical thresholds for the maintenance of viable populations of species, let alone ecological integrity. Collaboration among stakeholder categories should reject opinionated narratives, and instead rely on evidence-based knowledge about green infrastructure pressures, responses, and states.

Повышение эффективности мультифункциональных машин для ведения интенсивного лесного хозяйства

The method of intensification of forestry by means of integrated mechanization of forestry and logging operations is considered. It is proposed to use manipulator-type machines, such as harvesters, forwarders and excavators, as a technical basis. Improving the efficiency of manipulator-type machines can be achieved through using a set of optional interchangeable equipment. This will allow to create crops by planting seedlings with open and closed root systems, to carry out soil cultivation, seed sowing, thinning of young plants and to carry out pest control, mulching of skidding tracks after major work in the logging site, as well as earthworks during the construction of forest roads. The use of optional interchangeable equipment transforms a manipulator-type machine into a multifunctional machine. It has been shown that the purchase of optional equipment for forestry and logging is a cost-effective investment even for a small amount of works. Intensive forestry is primarily based on the measures of mature and overmature stands cutting, forest tending, and reforestation. Several technological schemes with the use of the multifunctional machine for felling both in the harvester and feller buncher modes are offered. In the latter option, tree length bucking and branch pruning ensure the concentration of all logging residues at the upper depot and create favorable conditions for their processing into raw material for biofuel production and reduce woodwaste in cutting areas. An option of using small size equipment for hauling trees into the area of operation of a multifunctional machine with an installed harvester head is offered when performing selective felling using wide-strip technology of harvesting. Preliminary preparation of the cutting area with small sized equipment (harvesting of small-sized, dead and fallen trees) is proposed. This will significantly reduce the damage to plantation components and provide a greater degree of preservation of the natural environment during the main work of the multifunctional machine. Its use in the most favorable terms due to the work execution on a quarter-block scheme, reducing the number of downtime due to naturalproduction conditions and the number of relocations and, accordingly, increasing the number of machine hours, will minimize total costs of the range of forestry and harvesting works.

Global Challenges and Forest Ecosystems

This article, based on a report at the meeting of the RAS Presidium on December 10, 2019, discusses the possibilities and problems of the development of the Russian circular forest bioeconomy, which is considered an effective response to modern global challenges. The concepts of the programs on science and technology, Ecological and Socioeconomic Threats of Forest Degradation in Russia under Global Change and Ways to Prevent Them and Assessment and Ways to Prevent the Risks of Crisis Situations in Forests during Forestry Intensification, initiated by the RAS Research Board on Forests, are presented, as is a draft concept of a new edition of the Federal Law On the Forest Code of the Russian Federation.

Survey of Community Livelihoods and Landscape Change along the Nzhelele and Levuvhu River Catchments in Limpopo Province, South Africa

Landscape-change studies have attracted increasing interest because of their importance to land management and the sustainable livelihoods of rural communities. However, empirical studies on landscape change and its drivers are often poorly understood, particularly, in small rural communities in developing countries such as South Africa. The present study surveyed local community livelihoods and perceptions of landscape change in the Nzhelele and Levuvhu river catchments in Limpopo Province, South Africa. These areas have experienced land reform and are also characterized by environmental degradation, poverty, inequality and environmental justice concerns among other issues. Land-cover maps derived from Landsat satellite imagery were used for purposes of correlating and validating the survey data findings and results. The survey results showed that education levels, working status and marital status have statistically significant effects on community livelihoods (indicated by levels of income, p < 0.05). Maize, fruits and vegetables are the main cultivated crop varieties in the study area, and these crops are mainly used for subsistence to meet household self-consumption requirements. Moreover, local community members and stakeholders argue that the landscape has changed over the past 20 years mainly as a result of urban expansion, deforestation, agricultural diversification and forestry intensification. These landscape changes were largely confirmed by the land-cover change maps derived from satellite imagery. Soil erosion as a result of landscape changes was identified as a major threat and hazard in the study area. Political, natural, economic and cultural factors have been identified as the major underlying drivers for the observed landscape changes. These results have implications for understanding landscape change, coupled with human–nature relationships as well as informing government policy with respect to advancing land management and further promotion of the sustainable livelihoods of rural communities. Overall, the study proposes a multiple stakeholders’ approach and ecosystem-based approach to promote the sustainable management of landscapes in rural areas.

An Assessment Scheme for Soil Degradation Caused by Forestry Machinery on Skid Trails in Germany

Core Ideas This assessment scheme links visual deformation and various soil processes. The ratio of soil stability and stress impacts defines level of soil degradation. Exceeding precompression stress leads to plastic deformation. Exceeding shear resistance leads to failure of bearing capacity. The worldwide demand for wood products has led to an intensification of forestry and to higher weights of forestry machinery. In Germany but also in other countries, timber harvesting is limited to skid trails that minimize soil compaction and degradation. To preserve the trafficability of skid trails and to prevent the additional degradation of unloaded soils it is important to understand soil mechanical and physical behavior. We developed an assessment scheme to link visible deformations and soil physical processes caused by forestry machinery. For this reason five different machine types and additional equipment were tested at six study sites in Germany, namely in Lower Saxony between 2012 and 2015. During these studies, disturbed and undisturbed soil samples were taken at soil depths of 20, 40, and 60 cm to determine various physical soil parameters. Furthermore, major principal stress (σ1) and shear stress (τs), caused by the tested forestry machinery, were measured with the stress‐state transducer system (SST) in the same depths. Based on these measurements, an assessment scheme was developed, which can be divided into two levels. The first level distinguishes internal and external soil parameters influencing soil stability. Internal soil parameters are processes and elements which describe soil strength and soil stability parameters (Pc and τr), for example clay migration and matric potential. External parameters are wheel load or contact area, resulting in stress impacts (describing parameters: σ1 and τs). The comparison between internal and external soil parameters led to the second level of this assessment scheme, describing four processes of soil degradation and deformation: elastic deformation, plastic deformation, failure of bearing capacity, and homogenization of soil structure.

Climate and productivity affect total mercury concentration and bioaccumulation rate of fish along a spatial gradient of subarctic lakes

Climate change is resulting in increased temperatures and precipitation in subarctic regions of Europe. These changes are extending tree lines to higher altitudes and latitudes, and enhancing tree growth enabling intensification of forestry into previously inhospitable subarctic regions. The combined effects of climate change and land-use intensification extend the warm, open-water season in subarctic lakes and increase lake productivity and may also increase leaching and methylation activity of mercury within the lakes. To assess the joint effects of climate and productivity on total mercury (THg) bioaccumulation in fish, we conducted a space-for-time substitution study in 18 tributary lakes of a subarctic watercourse forming a gradient from cold pristine oligotrophic lakes in the northern headwaters to warmer and increasingly human-altered mesotrophic and eutrophic systems in the southern lower reaches.Increasing temperature, precipitation, and lake productivity were predicted to elevate length- and age-adjusted THg concentrations, as well as THg bioaccumulation rate (the rate of THg bioaccumulation relative to length or age) in muscle tissue of European whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus), vendace (Coregonus albula), perch (Perca fluviatilis), pike (Esox lucius), roach (Rutilus rutilus) and ruffe (Gymnocephalus cernua).A significant positive relationship was observed between age-adjusted THg concentration and lake climate-productivity in vendace (r2 = 0.50), perch (r2 = 0.51), pike (r2 = 0.55) and roach (r2 = 0.61). Higher climate-productivity values of the lakes also had a positive linear (pike; r2 = 0.40 and whitefish; r2 = 0.72) or u-shaped (perch; r2 = 0.64 and ruffe; r2 = 0.50) relationship with THg bioaccumulation rate.Our findings of increased adjusted THg concentrations in planktivores and piscivores reveal adverse effects of warming climate and increasing productivity on these subarctic fishes, whereas less distinct trends in THg bioaccumulation rate suggest more complex underlying processes. Joint environmental stressors such as climate and productivity should be considered in ongoing and future monitoring of mercury concentrations.

How to reconcile wood production and biodiversity conservation? The Pan-European boreal forest history gradient as an “experiment”

There are currently competing demands on Europe's forests and the finite resources and services that they can offer. Forestry intensification that aims at mitigating climate change and biodiversity conservation is one example. Whether or not these two objectives compete can be evaluated by comparative studies of forest landscapes with different histories. We test the hypothesis that indicators of wood production and biodiversity conservation are inversely related in a gradient of long to short forestry intensification histories. Forest management data containing stand age, volume and tree species were used to model the opportunity for wood production and biodiversity conservation in five north European forest regions representing a gradient in landscape history from very long in the West and short in the East. Wood production indicators captured the supply of coniferous wood and total biomass, as well as current accessibility by transport infrastructure. Biodiversity conservation indicators were based on modelling habitat network functionality for focal bird species dependent on different combinations of stand age and tree species composition representing naturally dynamic forests. In each region we randomly sampled 25 individual 100-km2 areas with contiguous forest cover. Regarding wood production, Sweden's Bergslagen region had the largest areas of coniferous wood, followed by Vitebsk in Belarus and Zemgale in Latvia. NW Russia's case study regions in Pskov and Komi had the lowest values, except for the biomass indicator. The addition of forest accessibility for transportation made the Belarusian and Swedish study region most suitable for wood and biomass production, followed by Latvia and two study regions in NW Russian. Regarding biodiversity conservation, the overall rank among regions was opposite. Mixed and deciduous habitats were functional in Russia, Belarus and Latvia. Old Scots pine and Norway spruce habitats were only functional in Komi. Thus, different regional forest histories provide different challenges in terms of satisfying both wood production and biodiversity conservation objectives in a forest management unit. These regional differences in northern Europe create opportunities for exchanging experiences among different regional contexts about how to achieve both objectives. We discuss this in the context of land-sharing versus land-sparing.

Increase in volumes of carbon storage in managed forests of Russia in the conditions of intensification of forestry

Increase in volumes of carbon storage in managed forests of Russia in the conditions of intensification of forestry

Past levels of canopy closure affect the occurrence of veteran trees and flagship saproxylic beetles

AbstractAimOpen woodlands are biologically highly diverse habitats, and veteran (i.e., old, senescent) trees are key structures supporting their biodiversity. Open canopy structure had been maintained by both natural‐ and human‐induced disturbances. In the past two centuries, suppression of such disturbances, together with forestry intensification, has turned most lowland woodlands into closed‐canopy forests. We investigated the effect of increased canopy closure on veteran trees and several threatened beetles associated with them.LocationFloodplain woodlands along the lower Dyje and Morava rivers, Czech Republic.MethodsWe used an approach combining the study of aerial photographs with on‐ground survey of veteran trees and associated endangered beetles. The aerial images were used to obtain the information on historical (1938) and recent (2009) canopy closure in the area of 146 km2, where we mapped large oaks (d.b.h. >70 cm), hollow trees and three associated beetles including the hermit beetle (Osmoderma barnabita), the great capricorn beetle (Cerambyx cerdo) and the jewel beetle Eurythyrea quercus.ResultsThe presence of large oaks, hollow trees and their associated beetle species are negatively related to recent high canopy closure, and the historical level of canopy closure matters, as in nowadays closed‐canopy stands, the beetles and veteran trees are more common in places that were rather open in 1938 than in the places with closed canopy already in 1938. Moreover, the health state of veteran trees highly depends on the canopy closure.Main conclusionThe negative effect of canopy closure on veteran trees and their endangered inhabitants is several decades delayed and may thus often go undetected. In the forests, however, large and hollow trees and their associated biodiversity are relics of the past, more open conditions. The restoration of open woodlands is therefore vital for preventing their further decline. Conservation management planning needs to take this into account wherever, veteran trees and associated biota are concerned.

Green infrastructure development at European Union's eastern border: Effects of road infrastructure and forest habitat loss

The functionality of forest patches and networks as green infrastructure may be affected negatively both by expanding road networks and forestry intensification. We assessed the effects of (1) the current and planned road infrastructure, and (2) forest loss and gain, on the remaining large forest landscape massifs as green infrastructure at the EU's eastern border region in post-socialistic transition. First, habitat patch and network functionality in 1996–98 was assessed using habitat suitability index modelling. Second, we made expert interviews about road development with planners in 10 administrative regions in Poland, Belarus and Ukraine. Third, forest loss and gain inside the forest massifs, and gain outside them during the period 2001–14 were measured. This EU cross-border region hosts four remaining forest massifs as regional green infrastructure hotspots. While Poland's road network is developing fast in terms of new freeways, city bypasses and upgrades of road quality, in Belarus and Ukraine the focus is on maintenance of existing roads, and no new corridors. We conclude that economic support from the EU, and thus rapid development of roads in Poland, is likely to reduce the permeability for wildlife of the urban and agricultural matrix around existing forest massifs. However, the four identified forest massifs themselves, forming the forest landscape green infrastructure at the EU's east border, were little affected by road development plans. In contrast, forest loss inside massifs was high, especially in Ukraine. Only in Poland forest loss was balanced by gain. Forest gain outside forest massifs was low. To conclude, pro-active and collaborative spatial planning across different sectors and countries is needed to secure functional forest green infrastructure as base for biodiversity conservation and human well-being.

Land use and general equilibrium implications of a forest-based carbon sequestration policy in the United States

A comparative static Computable General Equilibrium model was used to assess the impacts of forest-based carbon payments on sequestration, land use, and agricultural commodity prices in the U.S. A modified 2008 regional Social Accounting Matrix, considering land as a heterogeneous factor, was used as the model's main input. The matrix was projected to its 2050 counterpart using capital and labour growth projections. The forest-generated carbon offset sources considered were afforested set-asides, commercial forestry intensification and harvested wood products. A new dataset on regional afforestation carbon uptake rates and costs was used to include afforested set-asides as latent activities. For a carbon offset price of $20/MT CO2, 12% of U.S. annual emissions could be sequestered in 2050. More than half of the additional carbon sequestered (611millionMT CO2), compared to the 2050 baseline, would be attributed to set-asides and composed mainly of softwood forests. High carbon prices would increase land prices resulting in the diversion of 15% and 8% of pasture and cropland to carbon set-asides, respectively, mainly in the Central Plains. The high agricultural land diversion would force activities to intensify production systems driving the prices of beef up by 14% as well as oilseeds and grains by 3% and 4%, respectively.

No support for long-term effects of commercial tree stump harvest on understory vegetation

Intensification of forestry may further increase the threat that forestry already imposes on biodiversity. The recent re-introduction of stump harvest in Swedish forestry clearly represents such intensification. Stump harvest not only decreases the available habitat for organisms living on dead wood, but also causes soil disturbance that can potentially alter understory diversity. In this study we capitalized on the large-scale stump harvest (c. 10,000ha) that took place during the period from 1977 to 1989 in south-central Sweden. In 2013, we performed vegetation surveys in forest stands where stumps were harvested and in conventionally harvested reference stands. Twenty-four to 36years after stump harvest we found no differences in species richness and composition of vascular plants and mosses between the two categories of stands. We conclude that our study lends no support for any long-term effects of stump harvest on understory vegetation. The lack of differences between stump harvested and conventional clear-cut stands may be due to that the additional disturbance effects generated by stump harvest were overridden by the strong disturbance effects already imposed by the standard forest management, i.e. clear-cutting with subsequent soil scarification.

Late Quaternary landscape development at the margin of the Pomeranian phase (MIS 2) near Lake Wygonin (Northern Poland)

In Central Europe, Late Quaternary landscapes experienced multiple phases of geomorphologic activity. In this study, we used a combined geomorphological, pedological, sedimentological and palynological approach to characterize landscape development after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) near Lake Wygonin in Northern Poland. The pedostratigraphical findings from soil pits and drillings were extrapolated using ground-penetrating radar (GPR) and electric resistivity tomography (ERT). During the Pomeranian phase, glacial and fluvioglacial processes dominated the landscape near Lake Wygonin. At the end of the glacial period, periglacial processes became relevant and caused the formation of ventifacts and coversands containing coated sand grains. At approximately 15,290–14,800calyrBP, a small pond formed in a kettle hole (profile BWI 2). The lacustrine sediments lack eolian sand components and therefore indicate the decline of eolian processes during that time. The increase of Juniperus and rock-rose (Helianthemum) in the pollen diagram is a prominent marker of the Younger Dryas. At the end of the Younger Dryas, a partial reshaping of the landscape is indicated by abundant charcoal fragments in disturbed lake sediments. No geomorphologic activity since the beginning of the Holocene is documented in the terrestrial and wetland archives. The anthropogenic impact is reflected in the pollen diagram by the occurrence of rye pollen grains (Secale cereale) and translocated soil sediments dated to 1560–1410calyrBP, proving agricultural use of the immediate vicinity. With the onset of land use, gully incision and the accumulation of colluvial fans reshaped the landscape locally. Since 540–460calyrBP, further gully incision in the steep forest tracks has been associated with the intensification of forestry. Outside of the gully catchments, the weakly podzolized Rubic Brunic Arenosols show no features of Holocene soil erosion.

The ecological and economic consequences of changing land use in the southern Drakensberg grasslands, South Africa

The grassland biome of the southern Drakensberg region of South Africa is characterized by a relatively rich floral biodiversity, including a high level of endemics. Land use in the area was traditionally dominated by livestock ranching based mainly on indigenous grassland that conserved biodiversity to some degree. Currently however, market demands and risk factors are shifting land use in the area to a matrix of beef, cropping, dairy and particularly, towards plantation forestry. A spreadsheet model was constructed to understand how expected land use conversion will likely influence the biodiversity, and consequently, the total economic value (TEV) of the area. Six scenarios of increasing dairy and forestry intensification were modelled that incorporated biophysical and legal constraints to development. Results indicate that enhanced development is likely to have significant negative biodiversity impacts including the reduction of the alpha diversity of the indigenous plants in the region, a diminished local invertebrate diversity, an increase in invasions, and could also jeopardize the long term survival of the rare Wattled Crane and Oribi. Furthermore, while the direct use value derived from agriculture and forestry increases with increasing development, its negative influence on the indirect value of water runoff, by far the greatest value of the area, is sufficient to potentially offset the benefits. Other major direct-use, indirect-use, option and existence values are also considered.

Estimation of potential production of energy wood in the Leningrad region of Russia

The forests of the Russian Federation are the world’s largest reserve of wood for different purposes. In order to satisfy the growing demand for wood, forestry in Russia has to be intensified. This study analysed energy wood resources in the Leningrad region of Russia, in the context of intensification of forestry and technical, socio-economic and climatic issues. The assessment was done using the resource-focused approach and statistical, spatial and cost-comparative analyses. Three scenarios of energy wood availability, based on different intensities of forestry, were analysed at regional and district levels to compare the efficiency of wood supply chains, to estimate employment effects of forest chip production and to analyse cost competitiveness of forest chips. The impact of climate change on the technical accessibility of forests and harvestable volumes of industrial and energy wood was analysed. In the scenario Allowable, the availability of energy wood increased from 4.1 to 6.3 Mm 3 (+54%) compared with the scenario Recent. In the scenario Potential, the total volume of available energy wood would be 9.2 Mm 3 (+124% compared with scenario Recent). Comparable results were obtained at the district level, +50% and +83%, respectively. The average productivity of logging operations in the Russian companies investigated was 20% to 30% lower than that in Finland. The employment effect from the utilisation of energy wood depended on the availability scenarios and the type of chipper used. The number of employment positions could be increased by 84% in the scenario Potential compared with the scenario Recent. Forest chips were 2–3 times more expensive than natural gas and coal but cheaper than heavy oil. Each decade, the duration of the winter felling season will become 3-4 days shorter. By 2015, the potential losses of a typical large logging company due to the technical inability of entering forests could be about 360 000 euro. The study area has large available volumes of energy wood but their utilisation is limited by technical and economic factors. The methodology proposed in this study could help logging companies and local authorities predict economic and social effects from the utilisation of energy wood.

The effects of forest age on saproxylic beetle biodiversity: implications of shortened and extended rotation lengths in a French oak high forest

Abstract In French oak high forests, current silvicultural trends include two seemingly opposed practices: shortening the forestry cycle, which contributes to forestry intensification, and lengthening rotations in temporary set‐aside stands, called ‘ageing islands’, to favour biodiversity and high‐quality large‐diameter tree production. To derive the potential effects of these two trends, we studied habitat structure and saproxylic beetles biodiversity along an age gradient in a French oak high forest. Four age classes were surveyed: premature (i) 160/180 years and (ii) 180/200 years, (iii) mature 200/220 years, and (iv) overmature 300‐year‐old stands. Structural features were noted: deadwood volumes, density of large trees with or without microhabitats, number of cavities, presence of dead large canopy branches, sap droppings and sporophores of saproxylic fungi. Results showed that beetle species richness was positively related to stand age. Globally, overmature stands differed significantly from younger premature and mature forests in species composition and structure. Younger stands tended to show both fewer structural features and lower levels of saproxylic biodiversity. As the forest aged, the overall structural complexity and saproxylic biodiversity increased. However, no individual stand characteristic influenced preferentially biodiversity, and stand age was the best explaining factor. In conclusion, we discuss how (i) shorter rotations in the high forest production cycle and (ii) temporary set‐aside forest islands affect forest structure and deadwood‐associated assemblages. Shortening rotation length in oak high forests may negatively impact saproxylic biodiversity, whereas temporary set‐asides may play a key role for biodiversity conservation in a managed forest matrix.

Can repeated fertilizer applications to young Norway spruce enhance avian diversity in intensively managed forests?

Repeated fertilization of forests to increase biomass production is an environmentally controversial proposal, the effects of which we assessed on breeding birds in stands of young Norway spruce (Picea abies), in an intensively managed forest area in southern Sweden. Our results show that fertilized stands had 38% more species and 21% more individuals than unfertilized stands. Compared with stands under traditional management, the further intensification of forestry by repeated applications of fertilizers thus seemed to enhance species richness and abundance of forest birds. We cannot conclude at this stage whether the response in the bird community was caused by changes in food resources or increased structural complexity in the forest canopy due to the skid roads used for the application of the fertilizers. Future studies should focus on structural and compositional effects of fertilization processes during the entire rotation period and at assessing its effects in a landscape

Ten challenges for 2010 and beyond to conserve Lepidoptera in Europe

Butterflies and moths have undergone a serious decline in most European countries following rapid changes in land use in recent decades. The main drivers of loss have been agricultural and forestry intensification, abandonment of marginal land (especially in mountainous regions), loss of traditional management of grasslands and woodlands, and urban spread. Over the same period the science and practice of Lepidoptera conservation has developed considerably and concerted action to save biodiversity has been taken in many countries, with vast areas designated as nature reserves or national parks. Despite this effort, Lepidoptera are still declining at an alarming rate and it is clear that the 2010 target of halting biodiversity loss will not be met. We suggest ten challenges that conservationists in Europe need to address if we are to be successful in halting these losses over coming decades. In this continent, Lepidoptera and their habitats often rely on traditional farming and forestry systems. How can these be brought together in harmony to create a healthier environment in which both humans and wildlife can thrive? The ten challenges include reform of agricultural support, identifying and supporting beneficial forestry systems, managing the matrix between habitats, managing habitats on a landscape scale, mitigating for climate change, creating a robust planning system that protects key sites, developing a comprehensive monitoring programme for Europe, securing long term funding for nature conservation, and ensuring both political and public support.