Forests Of West Virginia Research Articles

Nitrogen induced soil carbon gains are resistant to loss after the cessation of excess nitrogen inputs

Nitrogen (N) deposition has increased soil carbon (C) storage across eastern US temperate forests by reducing microbial decomposition. However, the fate of these N-induced soil C gains are uncertain given strong declines in N-deposition rates and rising soil temperatures. As N deposition has reduced soil pH and plant C investments into the rhizosphere, we compared the extent to which removing limitations to microbial decomposition by increasing soil pH, adding artificial root exudates, or elevating soil temperature would increase microbial decomposition in soils that have and have not received excess N inputs. We hypothesized that alleviating these microbial decomposition limitations would prime soil C losses from soils that have received excess N inputs. To test this hypothesis, we conducted a soil microcosm experiment where we compared microbial respiration, microbial biomass, and soil enzyme activity in soils from an unfertilized watershed and a previously N-fertilized watershed 4 years after the end of a 30-year N deposition experiment at the Fernow Experimental Forest in West Virginia. In both watersheds, we found that removing pH, plant carbon, or temperature limitations to decomposition stimulated microbial respiration. However, microbial decomposition and soil C losses were consistently lower in the previously N-fertilized watershed across all treatments. This response, coupled with a lack of differences in microbial biomass between watersheds and treatments, suggests that long-term N fertilization has fundamentally altered soil microbial communities and has led to a sustained impairment of the ability of the microbial community to decompose soil organic matter. Collectively, our results indicate that the legacy effect of N deposition on microbial communities may influence the persistence of soil C stocks in the face of global change.

West Virginia forest landowners’ preferences for forest carbon offset programs

Several carbon offset programs allow West Virginia (WV) forest landowners to manage their forests to mitigate climate change and promote forest sustainability while providing an opportunity to earn extra income through carbon offset credits. While this market has grown rapidly, accessibility issues for small family forest owners remain. This study examines WV forest landowners’ insights and understanding of forest carbon offset programs and program preferences through an online survey of WV's Managed Timberland Program participants. Results showed that 97 % of respondents find it important to keep their land forested and 41 % think that carbon offset programs will help keep their land forested. However, the majority have no knowledge of carbon offset programs (55 %) nor an understanding the credit generation process (60 %). An econometric model was estimated to examine the influence of program attributes to landowners’ decision to enroll in a carbon offset program. Survey results suggest that landowners will more likely participate in carbon offset programs that require shorter time commitment (1–5 years), pay higher revenues, allow harvest or limited harvest restrictions, and do not charge an early withdrawal penalty. For example, a $1 increase in revenue payment raises the probability of enrolling in a carbon offset program by 1.2 %. However, extending the time commitment from 1 to 5 years to 40 years or 100 years decreases the probability of enrollment by 10.3 % and 17.4 %, respectively. Additionally, prohibiting harvest and imposing an early withdrawal penalty decrease the probability of enrollment by 18.1 % and 9.5 %, respectively. Landowners expressed greater willingness to enroll if they believe it is important to keep their land forested, they have familiarity and knowledge of the carbon offset market, and they believe carbon offset programs will help keep their land forested. Age, educational level, and length of ownership were also found to be significant factors in influencing landowner participation in forest carbon offset programs. Lastly, a welfare estimate, or landowners’ willingness-to-accept (WTA), was estimated for each of the program attributes. Surveyed landowners’ WTA payment for a carbon program was $22/ha/year or $37/ha/year greater if program duration increased from 1 to 5 years to 40 years or 100 years, respectively. In addition, landowners’ WTA payment was $39/ha/year greater if a “no harvest” requirement is implemented and $19/ha/year more if a penalty for early withdrawal is imposed. This study shows how factors like duration, payment, harvest restrictions, and withdrawal penalties influence landowner enrollment in carbon offset programs. By examining the preferences and decision-making processes of forest owners, this research fills a critical gap in the literature by providing insights into the drivers of program participation. The findings contribute to a better understanding of how to design more effective carbon programs that align with landowner motivations, ultimately supporting climate mitigation goals and sustainable forest management practices.

Dietary Patterns Suggest West Virginia Bobcats Are Generalist Carnivores

Abstract The proportion and diversity of prey species consumed by bobcats Lynx rufus are often correlated with prey abundances, individual skill level, environmental conditions, and habitat quality. Bobcats generally consume prey species that rely on mast—the fruits of trees—for basic life-history requirements. In West Virginia forests, many mast-producing tree species have declined over the past 40 y, yet the last known study on bobcat diet in the state was in 1977. Thus, we need current data to understand the effects of forest compositional changes on bobcat dietary patterns. We evaluated stomach contents of 300 bobcats collected over the 2014–2015 (n = 150) and 2015–2016 (n = 150) hunting and trapping seasons in West Virginia. Simpson's index of diversity indicated an 87% probability that two randomly selected prey items belong to different species, supporting the idea of bobcats as generalist carnivores. White-tailed deer (hereafter deer) Odocoileus virginianus (32%), mice and rats (families Cricetidae, Dipodidae, and Muridae; 30.7%), rabbits (family Leporidae; 21.3%), Virginia opossum Didelphis virginiana (18.7%), and squirrels (family Sciuridae; 17.3%) occurred most frequently. We found 92% dietary overlap between sexes and 35% between stage classes. Deer, opossum, and raccoon Procyon lotor occurred more frequently in males, whereas rabbits occurred more frequently in females. Deer occurred more frequently in adults; raccoons in yearlings; and mice and rats in juveniles. Overall occurrence of deer (−17.1%), rodents (order Rodentia; −9.5%), opossum (+13.5%), and raccoon (+5.1%) differed significantly between the 1977 study and this study, which may allude to changes in the abundance of mast-dependent prey species over time. Similarly, hard mast (i.e., nuts) production had a significant interaction effect with study season on the overall occurrence of squirrels in bobcat diets. By improving our understanding of bobcat trophic interactions, we can better manage their populations and ecological communities by managing for the dietary requirements of their common prey species.

Role of Tree Species, the Herb Layer and Watershed Characteristics in Nitrate Assimilation in a Central Appalachian Hardwood Forest

Forest plants that can assimilate nitrate may act as nitrate sink and, consequently, reduce nitrate losses from watershed ecosystems through leaching. This study, conducted at the Fernow Experimental Forest in West Virginia, quantified via nitrogen reductase activity (NRA) the nitrate assimilation of two tree species, red maple and sugar maple, and surrounding common herb-layer species at the tissue (foliage, roots) and plot level. NRA measurements were conducted in summer and spring. Furthermore, NRA was quantified under varying levels of soil nitrate availability due to fertilization, different stages in secondary forest succession, and watershed aspect. This study confirmed that NRA of mature maples does not respond to varying levels of soil nitrate availability. However, some herb-layer species’ NRA did increase with nitrogen fertilization, and it may be greater in spring than in summer. Combined with biomass, the herb layer’s NRA at the plot-level (NRAA) comprised 9 to 41% of the total (tree + herb-layer) foliar NRAA during the growing season. This demonstrates that the herb layer contributes to nitrate assimilation disproportionally to its small biomass in the forest and may provide a vernal dam to nitrate loss not only by its early presence but also by increased spring NRA relative to summer.

Distinct forest bird communities are strongly associated with red spruce-northern hardwood ecosystems in Central Appalachia, USA

Degraded red spruce (Picea rubens)-northern hardwood ecosystems are the focus of restoration efforts across high-elevation landscapes in the Central Appalachian region of the eastern United States. To promote ecosystem function and long-term sustainability of restored forests, it is important to understand the associated biota, including bird communities. Certain bird species could serve as ecological indicators, with potential applications for evaluating restoration efforts. However, contemporary and statistically rigorous studies of red spruce bird communities in this region are lacking, as is a formal analysis of indicator species. The purpose of this study was to use multivariate regression trees and indicator species analyses to determine if bird communities and individual bird species, respectively, are strongly associated with the red spruce-northern hardwood ecosystem in Central Appalachia. Specifically, we assessed those associations with three distinct but complementary sets of forest characteristics, focusing on (1) red spruce and northern hardwood forest types, (2) classes of percent red spruce cover, and (3) red spruce and northern hardwood stand size classes. Community-wide avian point count survey data were collected in mid-May to mid-July 2010–2019 at 645 sampling points located in forest stands throughout the Monongahela National Forest in West Virginia. We found that red spruce and northern hardwood forest types had distinct bird communities within the study area, and that community composition differed among red spruce cover classes. In addition, forest type was more influential on bird community composition than stand size class (poletimber or sawtimber). Eleven indicator species were consistently associated with red spruce forests, whereas fewer species were identified as indicator species for northern hardwood forests. Ultimately, the distinctiveness of the bird community in red spruce forests and strength of those associations highlight the critical need for and importance of restoration efforts targeting red spruce-northern hardwood ecosystems in the Central Appalachians to ensure long-term maintenance of regional avian diversity.

Nitrogen Fertilization, Stand Age, and Overstory Tree Species Impact the Herbaceous Layer in a Central Appalachian Hardwood Forest

Research Highlights: Herb-layer community composition, abundance, species richness, and Shannon–Wiener diversity index are shaped by nitrogen fertilization, disturbance history, and the overstory tree species in its immediate vicinity. Background and Objectives: While the herbaceous layer in deciduous forests is increasingly recognized for its importance in various aspects of forest ecosystem function, this study sought to describe the factors impacting the herbaceous layer. Specifically, this study’s objective was to quantify and compare herb-layer species composition, cover, and other community indices in watersheds with (a) different levels of N deposition, (b) different stand ages due to differing disturbance histories, and (c) different watershed aspects. This study also tested the hypothesis that herb-layer characteristics vary beneath tree species with contrasting nutrient dynamics (i.e., red and sugar maple). Materials and Methods: At the Fernow Experimental Forest in West Virginia (USA), the cover of all herb-layer species was recorded directly under nine red maple and nine sugar maple trees in each of four watersheds (WS): long-term fertilized WS3 and unfertilized WS7, both with a stand age of about 50 years, and two unmanaged watersheds with 110-year-old stands and opposite watershed aspects (south-facing WS10, north-facing WS13). Community composition and plot-level indices of diversity were evaluated with multivariate analysis and ANOVA for watershed-level differences, effects of the maple species, and other environmental factors. Results: In the fertilized watershed (WS3), herb-layer diversity indices were lower than in the unfertilized watershed of the same stand age (WS7). In the unfertilized watershed with the 50-year-old stand (WS7), herb-layer diversity indices were higher than in the watershed with the 110-year-old stand of the same watershed aspect (WS13). WS10 and WS13 had similar herb-layer characteristics despite opposite watershed aspects. The presence of sugar maple corresponded to higher cover and diversity indices of the herb-layer in some of the watersheds. Conclusions: Despite the limitations of a case study, these findings bear relevance to future forest management since the forest herb layer plays important roles in deciduous forests through its influence on nutrient cycling, productivity, and overstory regeneration.

Fertilization and Tree Species Influence on Stable Aggregates in Forest Soil

Background and objectives: aggregation and structure play key roles in the water-holding capacity and stability of soils and are important for the physical protection and storage of soil carbon (C). Forest soils are an important sink of ecosystem C, though the capacity to store C may be disrupted by the elevated atmospheric deposition of nitrogen (N) and sulfur (S) compounds by dispersion of soil aggregates via acidification or altered microbial activity. Furthermore, dominant tree species and the lability of litter they produce can influence aggregation processes. Materials and methods: we measured water-stable aggregate size distribution and aggregate-associated organic matter (OM) content in soils from two watersheds and beneath four hardwood species at the USDA Forest Service Fernow Experimental Forest in West Virginia, USA, where one watershed has received (NH4)2SO4 fertilizer since 1989 and one is a reference/control of similar stand age. Bulk soil OM, pH, and permanganate oxidizable carbon (POXC) were also measured. Research highlights: fertilized soil exhibited decreased macro-aggregate formation and a greater proportion of smaller micro-aggregates or unassociated clay minerals, particularly in the B-horizon. This shift in aggregation to soil more dominated by the smallest (<53 µm) fraction is associated with both acidification (soil pH) and increased microbially processed C (POXC) in fertilized soil. Intra-aggregate OM was also depleted in the fertilized soil (52% less OM in the 53–2000 µm fractions), most strongly in subsurface B-horizon soil. We also document that tree species can influence soil aggregation, as soil beneath species with more labile litter contained more OM in the micro-aggregate size class (<250 µm), especially in the fertilized watershed, while species with more recalcitrant litter promoted more OM in the macro-aggregate size classes (500–2000 µm) in the reference watershed. Conclusions: long-term fertilization, and likely historic atmospheric deposition, of forest soils has weakened macro-aggregation formation, with implications for soil stability, hydrology, and storage of belowground C.

Hypogeous, Sequestrate Fungi (Genus Elaphomyces) Found at Small-Mammal Foraging Sites in High-Elevation Conifer Forests of West Virginia

Little is known about hypogeous, sequestrate fungi (i.e., truffles) in the eastern United States. Since the fruiting bodies of these fungi are part of the diet of multiple rodent species, filling data gaps is important to understanding more about truffle species distribution and habitat associations. During a microhabitat study on radio-collared Glaucomys sabrinus fuscus (Virginia Northern Flying Squirrel) in 2013, we opportunistically sampled truffles at small-mammal digs and scratches within our microhabitat plots. All sampling was conducted within known squirrel-foraging home ranges. We found 3 Elaphomyces species: E. macrosporus, E. verruculosus, and E. americanum. Our observations of E. macroporus are the first from West Virginia. Herein, we describe the microhabitat associations for each fungal species. We suggest using small-mammal digs and scratches as potential indicators to opportunistically gather more information on truffle species in coniferous forests of the eastern United States.

Influence of prescribed fire and forest structure on woodland salamander abundance in the central Appalachians, USA

Prescribed fire is used in the central Appalachians to promote and maintain mixed-oak and pine forests, create open forest conditions, improve habitat for wildlife, and to reduce the risk of impact of higher intensity wildfires on human development. Few studies have investigated responses of terrestrial salamander populations to habitat management using fire, and estimated responses have been neutral, negative, and positive depending on geography, species, and fire-severity. We examined woodland salamander (genus Plethodon) population responses to habitat management using prescribed fire on Shenandoah Mountain in the George Washington National Forest in West Virginia and Virginia, USA. We focused on responses of the Cow Knob Salamander (P. punctatus), a talus specialist and species of high conservation concern, but also examined responses of the Eastern Red-Backed Salamander (P. cinereus), a widespread habitat generalist. Three burn units were subjected to two low-severity burns and one unit was burned five times with ca. 40% tree mortality. Using a combination of nighttime visual encounter surveys and coverboard surveys, we compared terrestrial salamander abundance and body condition in unburned and burned areas. We also measured habitat characteristics at sampling sites to determine if prescribed burn histories were correlated with habitat conditions important to woodland salamanders. Mean abundance for P. punctatus was lower at sites that were burned, but there was not a strong burn effect for P. cinereus. Abundance of both species was positively correlated with canopy cover. Mean and median body condition index (BCI) score was higher for P. punctatus and lower for P. cinereus on the West Virginia side of Shenandoah Mountain, and lower in burned areas for both species. However, the most parsimonious BCI models did not contain the burn predictor. Management using prescribed fire altered microhabitat conditions that are important for woodland salamanders, such as canopy cover, leaf litter depth, and vegetation groundcover. Our study suggests that woodland salamanders in the central Appalachians can persist in forests managed using prescribed fire, but also indicates that prescribed fire can result in reduced habitat quality for some woodland salamander species.

Economic Contributions of West Virginia's Forest Products Industry Over Time: A Look at 2006, 2010, 2015, and 2017 Data

Abstract West Virginia's forest products industry (FPI) has long been viewed as an important industry to the state. However, there is a lack of recent data regarding the economic contribution of the industry to the state's economy. The housing market collapse of the mid-2000s, subsequent recession, continued increasing global competition, natural gas boom, and other macroeconomic trends have affected the FPI in the state. The continuing evolution of the state economy necessitates a reexamination of the role the FPI plays in the state. Thus, this article examines the historical contribution of the FPI to West Virginia's economy using 2006, 2010, 2015, and 2017 data. Both the direct and total economic contributions of the industry substantially declined from 2006 to 2010. The largest declines were experienced in the secondary solid-wood products and wood furniture sectors. Between 2010 and 2015, the industry's direct and total contributions rose for all measures evaluated. Between 2015 and 2017, all measures of direct and total contributions of the industry also increased but at a much slower pace and remained lower than 2006 levels. The inability of the FPI in the state to return to 2006 levels of direct contributions suggests that long-term industry trends such as the continued offshoring of value-added forest products sectors and increased industry automation are still putting negative pressure on direct industry growth. Additionally, the industry is facing new challenges such as uncertainty about the future availability of the foreign markets and competition for resources from emerging industries.

Assessing tree ring δ15N of four temperate deciduous species as an indicator of N availability using independent long-term records at the Fernow Experimental Forest, WV.

Nitrogen deposition in the northeastern US changed N availability in the latter part of the twentieth century, with potential legacy effects. However, long-term N cycle measurements are scarce. N isotopes in tree rings have been used as an indicator of N availability through time, but there is little verification of whether species differ in the strength of this signal. Using long-term records at the Fernow Experimental Forest in West Virginia, we examined the relationship between soil conditions, including net nitrification rates, and wood δ15N in 2014, and tested the strength of correlation between tree ring δ15N of four species and stream water NO3- loss from 1971 to 2000. Higher soil NO3- was weakly associated with higher wood δ15N across species, and higher soil net nitrification rates were associated with higher δ15N for Quercus rubra only. The δ15N of Liriodendron tulipifera and Q. rubra, but neither Fagus grandifolia nor Prunus serotina, was correlated with stream water NO3-. L. tulipifera tree ring δ15N had a stronger association with stream water NO3- than Q. rubra. Overall, we found only limited evidence of a relationship between soil N cycling and tree ring δ15N, with a strong correlation between the wood δ15N and NO3- leaching loss through time for one of four species. Tree species differ in their ability to preserve legacies of N cycling in tree ring δ15N, and given the weak relationships between contemporary wood δ15N and soil N cycle measurements, caution is warranted when using wood δ15N to infer changes in the N cycle.

Overstory cohort survival in an Appalachian hardwood deferment cutting: 35-year results

Deferment cutting is a two-aged regeneration method in which the majority of the stand is harvested and a dispersed component of overstory trees—approximately 15–20% of the basal area – is retained for at least one-half rotation and up one full rotation for reasons other than regeneration. Careful consideration of residual trees, in both characteristics and harvesting, is necessary to improve the chances that individual trees will survive until the next planned harvest. A long-term experimental deferment cutting study was established on the Fernow Experimental Forest and Monongahela National Forest in West Virginia, USA in the early 1980s. Repeated tree measurements spanning the approximately 35-year study period permitted a survival analysis of the overstory cohort. The effects on survival were tested for three endogenous factors (dbh, species, crown class) and one exogenous factor (logging damage) using a Cox Proportional Hazards model, with stand effects (multiple trees measured within a stand) accounted for by using as frailty model. Survival rates were high, with 92% of trees surviving (910 of 985 trees). The mortality rate was low at six percent, (60 of 985 trees), and the number of trees cut or destroyed during logging was two percent (15 of 985 trees). Trees injured in the deferment harvest did not show increased risk of mortality, p = 0.91. Crown class also did not contribute to increased mortality, p = 0.35, as the majority of overstory trees retained were in the dominant and codominant classes. Six species, Liriodendron tulipifera L., Prunus serotina Ehrh., Quercus alba L., Quercus montana Willd., Quercus rubra L., Quercus velutina Lam., had sufficient sample sizes to test for species differences. However, species was not significant for survival, p = 0.10. The only significant factor in survival was dbh, p < 0.01, with larger trees having increased probability of survival. These results demonstrate that overstory trees in a deferment cutting can be acceptably maintained midway through the next rotation and likely until the next regeneration harvest.

Interactions among plants, bacteria, and fungi reduce extracellular enzyme activities under long-term N fertilization.

Atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition has enhanced soil carbon (C) stocks in temperate forests. Most research has posited that these soil C gains are driven primarily by shifts in fungal community composition with elevated N leading to declines in lignin degrading Basidiomycetes. Recent research, however, suggests that plants and soil microbes are dynamically intertwined, whereby plants send C subsidies to rhizosphere microbes to enhance enzyme production and the mobilization of N. Thus, under elevated N, trees may reduce belowground C allocation leading to cascading impacts on the ability of microbes to degrade soil organic matter through a shift in microbial species and/or a change in plant-microbe interactions. The objective of this study was to determine the extent to which couplings among plant, fungal, and bacterial responses to N fertilization alter the activity of enzymes that are the primary agents of soil decomposition. We measured fungal and bacterial community composition, root-microbial interactions, and extracellular enzyme activity in the rhizosphere, bulk, and organic horizon of soils sampled from a long-term (>25years), whole-watershed, N fertilization experiment at the Fernow Experimental Forest in West Virginia, USA. We observed significant declines in plant C investment to fine root biomass (24.7%), root morphology, and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) colonization (55.9%). Moreover, we found that declines in extracellular enzyme activity were significantly correlated with a shift in bacterial community composition, but not fungal community composition. This bacterial community shift was also correlated with reduced AM fungal colonization indicating that declines in plant investment belowground drive the response of bacterial community structure and function to N fertilization. Collectively, we find that enzyme activity responses to N fertilization are not solely driven by fungi, but instead reflect a whole ecosystem response, whereby declines in the strength of belowground C investment to gain N cascade through the soil environment.

Long-Term Experimental Acidification Drives Watershed Scale Shift in Dissolved Organic Matter Composition and Flux.

Over the last several decades dissolved organic carbon concentrations (DOC) in surface waters have increased throughout much of the northern hemisphere. Several hypotheses have been proposed regarding the drivers of this phenomenon including decreased sulfur (S) deposition working via an acidity- change mechanism. Using fluorescence spectroscopy and data from two long-term (24+ years at completion of this study) whole watershed acidification experiments, that is, the Bear Brook Watershed in Maine (BBWM) and Fernow Experimental Forest in West Virginia (FEF) allowed us to control for factors other than the acidity-change mechanism (e.g., differing vegetation, shifting climate), resulting in the first study we are aware of where the acidity change mechanism could be experimentally isolated at the whole ecosystem and decadal scales as the driver of shifts in DOM dynamics. The multidecadal record of stream chemistry at BBWM demonstrates a significantly lower DOC concentration in the treated compared to the reference watershed. Additionally, at both BBWM and FEF we found significant and sustained differences in stream fluorescence index (FI) between the treated and reference watersheds, with the reference watersheds demonstrating a stronger terrestrial DOM signature. These data, coupled with evidence of pH shifts in upper soil horizons support the hypotheses that declines in S deposition are driving changes in the solubility of soil organic matter and increased flux of terrestrial DOC to water bodies.

Mapping pedomemory of spodic morphology using a species distribution model

Red spruce (Picea rubens) ecosystems in the high elevations of the central Appalachians of the eastern United States are the focus of ongoing restoration efforts due to the valuable ecosystem services these forests provide. Recent research has shown that spodic materials still present in the soil represent the pedomemory of the historic extent of red spruce forests in the region. A dataset containing 221 points with varying spodic intensities and 29 environmental variables collected from the Monongahela National Forest in West Virginia, USA, was used to evaluate the utility of a species distribution model, Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt), for predicting the presence of spodic properties. MaxEnt was selected for evaluation because, as a presence-only model, it inherently omits absence locations and thereby reduces the risk of including false absences (i.e., herein, locations that have undergone some level of depodzolization) unlike other models previously used to predict pedomemory. Model outputs that employed three different spodic intensity class inputs—very weak to strong expression, weak to strong expression, and strong expression—resulted in similar spodic probability predictions, though there was less area mapped as transitional probabilities in the strong expression model than the two models that included weaker spodic intensity input data. Permutation importance indicated that no single or small subset of environmental variables controlled the three model outputs, perhaps because the environmental covariates may have been too coarse or not strongly enough associated with podzolization processes to be very important. When the output from the MaxEnt model using the full range of spodic intensities (very weak to strong) was compared to an output produced using a presence-absence model (random forests), there was approximately 62% agreement (where both models predicted presence or both predicted absence) for the cells in the top 40% of the predicted probabilities.

Erosion from a Cross-Country Natural Gas Pipeline Corridor: The Critical First Year

Sediment losses as concentrations and yields were measured for a year from 12 segments of a newly constructed (buried) natural gas pipeline on the US Forest Service’s Fernow Experimental Forest in West Virginia. Pipeline segments were separated by waterbars which served as drainage features. Six segments were northwest-facing, and six were southeast-facing. Three segments on each aspect were seeded with warm season native herbaceous species at rates used by the Forest Service (1×). All remaining segments received seeding at three times that rate (3×). Forest Service-established rates of fertilizer, lime, and straw mulch were applied to all segments. Sediment concentrations and yields generally were highest at the start of the study, respectively, averaging approximately 1660 mg L−1 and 340 kg ha−1 during the first 3 months following completion of corridor reclamation, but they were less than from nearby less-steep forest road corridors. Concentrations and yields fell significantly after the first 3 months; declines were attributed to revegetation on the ROW. At the end of the first growing season, vegetative cover on all segments ranged from 55 to 79%, with no differences between seeding rates. Mean runoff was significantly higher on the northwest-facing segments than on the southeast-facing segments, but runoff volumes did not decrease on either aspect in concert with loadings or concentrations. Higher runoff on the northwest-facing segments may have been due to clay-skinned peds in subsurface soil that limited vertical drainage. Even with a heavy straw mulch cover on the right-of-way, the timing of the highest sediment losses immediately following pipeline construction suggests that implementation of additional surface-protection best management practices could be beneficial until vegetation is reestablished.

Managing Appalachian hardwood stands using four management practices: 60-year results

A long-term forest management case study on the Fernow Experimental Forest in West Virginia referred to as the Cutting Practice Level study is evaluated after 60years. Treatments include a commercial clearcut (one time application), a 39cm diameter-limit (applied 4 times), uneven-aged management using two variations of single-tree selection (applied 7 and 8 times, respectively), and an unmanaged reference area. We examine productivity, species composition and diversity, structure, tree quality, and revenues generated related to each treatment since establishment. The diameter-limit treatment resulted in greatest average periodic annual increment (PAI) of sawtimber volume of 3.1m3ha−1yr−1 while the unmanaged reference area resulted in the least of 2.2m3ha−1yr−1 (based on the difference in standing volume from 1956 to 2008). All types of partial harvesting resulted in greater sawtimber productivity than either the commercial clearcut or the reference area. Post-harvest tree quality, as measured by proportion of grade 1 butt logs, has improved from 1988 to 2008 for all but the diameter-limit treatment, which is similar to conditions in 1968. In 2008, the proportion of grade 1 trees in the residual stand ranged from a high of 0.22 for single-tree selection to 0.15 for diameter-limit harvesting. Species composition is becoming less diverse and more dominated by shade-tolerant species in all treatment groups but the change has been the greatest in the two single-tree selection treatments. Initially, size-class distributions were somewhat unimodal and reflective of even-aged stands with shade tolerant species persisting in the understory. In 2008, the single-tree selection treatments were both characterized by a reverse-J size class distribution and it appears this structure can be maintained due to recruitment of shade-tolerant species in the smaller size classes with concomitant reductions in species diversity. The net present value for each treatment in 2008, the time of the last management intervention, ranged from $20,000ha−1 for reference area to almost $34,000ha−1 for the single-tree selection treatment that included management of pole-sized trees based on all revenue and the value of standing timber using an internal rate of return of 4%.

West Virginia's Big Trees: Setting the Record Straight

People love big trees, people love to find big trees, and people love to find big trees in the place they call home. Having been suspicious for years, my coauthor and historian Rob Whetsell, approached me with a species identification challenge. There are several photographs of giant trees used by many people to illustrate the past forests of West Virginia, specifically, these photographs are claimed to be of a giant white oak (Quercus alba) in Tucker County, West Virginia. Rob was sure these were of a species not found in West Virginia…and he was right.

Raccoon Spatial Requirements and Multi-Scale Habitat Selection within an Intensively Managed Central Appalachian Forest

Abstract We studied a raccoon (Procyon lotor) population within a managed central Appalachian hardwood forest in West Virginia to investigate the effects of intensive forest management on raccoon spatial requirements and habitat selection. Raccoon home-range (95% utilization distribution) and core-area (50% utilization distribution) size differed between sexes with males maintaining larger (2×) home ranges and core areas than females. Home-range and core-area size did not differ between seasons for either sex. We used compositional analysis to quantify raccoon selection of six different habitat types at multiple spatial scales. Raccoons selected riparian corridors (riparian management zones [RMZ]) and intact forests (> 70 y old) at the core-area spatial scale. RMZs likely were used by raccoons because they provided abundant denning resources (i.e., large-diameter trees) as well as access to water. Habitat composition associated with raccoon foraging locations indicated selection for intact forests, ripari...

Tree Response to Experimental Watershed Acidification

Forest ecosystems in the Eastern USA are threatened by acid deposition rates that have increased dramatically since industrialization. We utilized two watersheds at the Fernow Experimental Forest in West Virginia to examine long-term effects of acidification on ecological processes. One watershed has been treated with ammonium sulfate (approximately twice the ambi- ent deposition rate) since 1989 to simulate elevated acidic deposition, while the other served as a control. Prior to treatment, both watersheds were similar in age and species composition. Ten dominant overstory Prunus serotina and Liriodendron tulipifera trees were selected and cored from each watershed to measure bolewood concentrations of essential elements through time. In addition, changes intree species basal area were analyzed utilizing 50 long-term growth plots. Results of this experiment show lower calcium and magnesium concentration and increased acidic cation concentration for both species in the treated watershed, indicating a negative treatment effect. Growth response, measured through relative growth rates of cored trees and changes in basal area from growth plots, was not as conclusive and appeared to differ by species. The resulting differ- ence in species response indicates that acidification sensitivity is something that land managers should con- sider when managing forests affected by acidification.