Kyoto Forests Research Articles

Estimation of leaf biomass and leaf longevity of hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa Endlicher) in the suburban secondary forest in Kyoto, Japan.

Estimation of leaf biomass and leaf longevity of hinoki cypress (<i>Chamaecyparis obtusa</i> Endlicher) in the suburban secondary forest in Kyoto, Japan.

The problem of carbon forest management: Much or fast?

Can we improve the environmental situation on our planet? The authors’ answer is yes, we can if there are solutions to improve the environment (they do exist) and if they are integrated into the economic environment. Analyzing the effect of initial conditions on the possible reward for the absorption of atmospheric carbon by the so-called “Kyoto forest,” the authors reach a conclusion on the preferred approach to raising forests in Siberia’s conditions.

Soil bacterial community structure in five tropical forests in Malaysia and one temperate forest in Japan revealed by pyrosequencing analyses of 16S rRNA gene sequence variation

Bacterial community structure was investigated in five tropical rainforests in Sarawak, Malaysia and one temperate forest in Kyoto, Japan. A hierarchical sampling approach was employed, in which soil samples were collected from five sampling-sites within each forest. Pyrosequencing was performed to analyze a total of 493,790 16S rRNA amplicons. Despite differences in aboveground conditions, the composition of bacterial groups was similar across all sampling-sites and forests, with Acidobacteria, Proteobacteria, Verrucomicrobia, Planctomycetes and Bacteroidetes accounting for 90% of all Phyla detected. At higher taxonomic levels, the same taxa were predominant, although there was significant heterogeneity in relative abundance of specific taxa across sampling-sites within one forest or across different forests. In all forests, the level of bacterial diversity, estimated using the Chao1 index, was on the order of 1,000, suggesting that tropical rainforests did not necessarily have a large soil bacterial diversity. The average number of reads per species (OTUs) per sampling-site was 8.0, and more than 40-50% of species were singletons, indicating that most bacterial species occurred infrequently and that few bacterial species achieved high predominance. Approximately 30% of species were specific to one sampling-site within a forest, and 40-60% of species were uniquely detected in one of the six forests studied here. Only 0.2% of species were detected in all forests, while on average 32.1% of species were detected in all sampling-sites within a forest. The results suggested that bacterial communities adapted to specific micro- and macro-environments, but macro-environmental diversity made a larger contribution to total bacterial diversity in forest soil.

If a Tree Falls in a Kyoto Forest and Nobody is There to Hear it, will it be Accounted for? An Insider's View of the Negotiations Surrounding Land Use, Land‐use Change and Forestry for the Second Commitment Period of the Kyoto Protocol

Parties are currently considering new accounting rules for land use, land‐use change and forestry (LULUCF) for a second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol. This article explores these new accounting rules and definitions, particularly in relation to forest management. It looks at various accounting methodologies, including the use of reference levels, a ‘bar approach’, net‐net accounting and full land‐based accounting. It also explores the use of harvested wood products, the implications of force majeure and natural disturbances. It discusses the negotiations relating to new activities for Annex I Parties to the Protocol, including wetland management. The future of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) with respect to LULUCF is also considered and the politics and processes associated with the negotiations are revealed. Finally, there is a discussion on a future Protocol and what implications this may have for accounting for emissions and removals from LULUCF activities.

Controls of litter quality on the carbon sink in soils through partitioning the products of decomposing litter in a forest succession series in South China

Through the long-term measurement and development of a method for partitioning the products of decomposing litter, the impact of chemical components of forest debris on soil organic carbon (SOC) accumulation was studied in a forest succession series in South China. We quantified how litter quality is strongly correlated with the partitioning of respiration, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and fragments of decomposing litter. In the succession sequence of 60-year-old pine forest (PF), to 80-year-old mixed pine and evergreen broadleaved forest (MF) to more than 400-year-old monsoon evergreen broadleaved forest (MEBF), the litter C/N ratios and lignin contents were gradually decreasing, which in turn were correlated with increasing litter decomposition constants ( k-values), gradually shortening residence times of standing litter pool. And, 53.5%, 65.6% and 76.2% of the gravimetric litter mass losses were going belowground through both DOC and fragmentation. Correspondingly, the SOC accumulation rates in the top 20 cm of mineral soils for the three forests from 1978 to 2008 were 26 ± 4, 33 ± 5 and 67 ± 5 g C m −2 yr −1, respectively. Results of the study support the idea that in order to increase carbon sequestration in soils and long-term functional ability of forest ecosystems to act as carbon sinks, “Kyoto Forests” should be designed and reconstructed with a high diversity of broadleaved species, especially containing nitrogen-fixing trees.

Negligible impact of deer-induced habitat degradation on the genetic diversity of extant Bombus diversus populations in comparison with museum specimens

The genetic diversity of bumblebees can be adversely affected by habitat degradation. An overabundance of deer has altered the composition and diversity of herbaceous plants in many places of the world, resulting in decreases of herbaceous flowers. Populations of Bombus diversus may be strongly affected by this degradation of habitat in the Ashiu primary beech forest in Kyoto, Japan. To estimate the effects of deer browsing on B. diversus populations, we analyzed and compared the genetic diversity of the extant population in Ashiu to museum specimens collected prior to heavy deer browsing in Ashiu (1980s) and the extant population in Hyonosen primary beech forest in Tottori, Japan, which has not been as severely degraded by deer. We successfully amplified DNA from ~20-year-old museum specimens and determined the genetic diversity of B. diversus in Ashiu populations from the 1980s. Results were analyzed for indications of a bottleneck as well as estimates of Ne, allelic richness, rare allelic richness, expected heterozygosity, and the effective number of alleles. Our findings did not reveal clear evidence of degradation in genetic diversity of the extant Ashiu population compared to the museum specimens or to the Hyonosen population. Thus, the Ashiu population of B. diversus appears to have maintained a level of genetic diversity during 20 years irrespective of habitat degradation and the levels have been similar to that of the Hyonosen population.

Sprout initiation and growth for three years after cutting in an abandoned secondary forest in Kyoto, Japan

Secondary forests in Japan have been abandoned and the ecosystem has degraded since the high economic growth period. We carried out cutting in January in three small areas of a long-abandoned secondary forest and investigated the sprout initiation and growth of woody plants for three years in order to reveal the early stage of sprout regeneration and to understand the sprouting ability and characteristics of each species for effective management. The percentage of sprouted stumps and the number of sprouting shoots was substantially maximized in autumn in the first year. These results suggest that autumn monitoring in the first year after cutting shows the maximum percentage of sprouted stumps and the maximum sprout number when cutting was conducted in the dormant season. With regards to species characteristics, Eurya japonica showed a low percentage of sprouted stumps in the lower plot, where the mean diameter at breast height for this species was smaller than in the other plots. The sprouting ability of E. japonica was deemed to be influenced by parent tree size. Ilex pedunculosa and Lyonia ovalifolia var. elliptica had high percentages of sprouted stumps and many sprouts. These species are useful for obtaining sprouting shoots (e.g., for firewood), but it is difficult to control their sprouting.

Large carbon-sink potential by Kyoto forests in Sweden–a case study on willow plantations

Large carbon-sink potential by Kyoto forests in Sweden–a case study on willow plantations

Implications of Country-Level Decisions on the Specification of Crown Cover in the Definition of Forests for Land Area Eligible for Afforestation and Reforestation Activities in the CDM

Within the Kyoto Protocol, countries have significant latitude to define a forest. The most important parameter affecting area designated as forest is the minimum crown density which can be set between 10 and 30 percent. The choice will have implications for the amount of land available in a country for afforestation and reforestation (A/R) activities within the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). In this paper, we used GIS analysis to look at four case studies from countries involved in the EU-funded ENCOFOR project: Bolivia, Ecuador, Uganda and Kenya. We also looked at the effects of other factors that would exclude land from eligibility for A/R projects. A low threshold of 10 percent crown cover resulted in exclusion of 70 to 90 percent of the land area of all countries except Kenya, which differed from the other countries by its large dryland areas. Much less area was excluded when higher thresholds were used. The spatial analyses showed not only the effects of the choice of the crown cover criterion, but also where the land was available for CDM activities within each country at different thresholds. This is the first time that the effect of the crown cover element of the Kyoto forest definition on land availability and distribution for CDM A/R activities has been quantified. While there are a number of reasons to choose different thresholds, this analysis suggests that countries that are considering using CDM finance for rural development might want to select the higher minimum threshold for crown cover in order to maximize their participation and flexibility.

Large carbon-sink potential by Kyoto forests in Sweden—a case study on willow plantations

Fluxes of CO2 were measured in a 75-ha short-rotation willow plantation at Enkôping, central Sweden. The plantation was irrigated with wastewater for fertilization and water-filtering purposes. The harvested biomass was used locally for combined heat and power production. The plantation was a sink of ca. 8 tonnes C ha-1 during 2003, of which ca. 50% was estimated to be attributed to fertilization. Biomass increment by shoot growth was 5 tonnes C ha-1 during the same year. Belowground carbon allocation was estimated to 3 tonnes C ha-1 yr-1 by a model that relates carbon allocation to shoot growth. Thus, the ecosystem carbon balance was closed by these estimations. The carbon uptake by the willow plantation was 5.5 times as high compared to a normally managed spruce forest, but only half as high as from an experimental, well-managed willow plantation in the same region. This illustrates the vast potential of short-rotation willow plantations for CO2 uptake from the atmosphere.

Components and seasonal variation of night-time total ecosystem respiration in a Japanese broad-leaved secondary forest

The Yamashiro Experimental Forest is a broad-leaved secondary forest in Kyoto, Japan. On its complex terrain, low wind speed, high air stability, and local advection are common at night. To reduce the uncertainty in measuring woodytissue respiration at night, we used automated stem chambers to measure stem respiration continuously (for 5 min at 30 min intervals) on stems of Quercus serrata Murr. (deciduous) and Ilex pedunculosa Miq. (evergreen) throughout 2003. Using these data, we estimated night-time respiration for the total ecosystem and its various components, and we report foliar and soil respiration rates for 2003. Annual average night-time respiration of soil, evergreen leaf, deciduous leaf, evergreen woody tissue and deciduous woody tissue were estimated as 0.0794 (63.2%), 0.0101 (8.0%), 0.0160 (12.7%), 0.0064 (5.1%) and 0.0137 (10.9%) mg CO2 m-2 s-1, respectively. The contribution of soil respiration to the total ecosystem respiration rate reached its minimum (49.1%) on 12 June (DOY 163) and its maximum (82.4%) on 29 November (DOY 333). Seasonal change of growth respiration was marked, indicating that the seasonal variation of growth respiration must be evaluated carefully to estimate total ecosystem respiration. Therefore, long-term continuous measurement using automated chambers and averaging provides an effective means of evaluating the annual night-time ecosystem respiration.

Afforestation/reforestation of New Zealand marginal pasture lands by indigenous shrublands: the potential for Kyoto forest sinks

La Nouvelle-Zelande va utiliser les provisions de boisement/reboisement (A/R) de l'article 3.3 du protocole de Kyoto pour compenser les emissions de gaz a effets de serre, pendant la premiere periode d'engagement 2008-2012. Nous evaluons ici le potentiel initial de puits de C rendus disponible par l'A/R des pâturages marginaux par les especes arbustives les plus communes de Nouvelle-Zelande: le mânuka (Leptospermum scoparium) et le kânuka (Kunzea ericiodes). Les mesures realisees sur des parcelles d'etude de comparaison par paire montrent que la moyenne du taux net d'accumulation de carbone pour le mānuka/kānuka, sur une periode d'environ 40 ans de la phase de croissance active, est de l'ordre de 1,9 a 2,5 t C ha -1 par an. Des etudes sur les changements en C mineral du sol sur une A/R arbustive de prairies suggerent des pertes mineures, qui seraient apparemment largement compensees par une accumulation dans la litiere et dans la couche d'humus. Des etudes sur les changements en C mineral du sol sur une A/R arbustive de prairies suggerent des pertes mineures, qui seraient apparemment largement compensees par une accumulation dans la litiere. Des analyses montrent qu'au niveau national environ 1,45 Mha de pâturages marginaux seraient appropries pour une A/R par arbuste ou foret indigene. Ces zones pourraient accumuler environ 2.9 ± 0.5 Mt de C par an, une compensation significative aux emissions annuelles de combustible fossile en CO 2 de la Nouvelle-Zelande, estimees a 8,84 Mt de C-CO 2 par an. Des analyses economiques preliminaires d'activite d'elevage sur une region dont les prairies comprennent d'importantes zones marginales pour une agriculture pastorale durable suggerent que la « culture de carbone » pourrait s'averer une alternative interessante d'utilisation du sol, si les prix internationaux de carbone de biomasse atteignent environ 10 » par tonne de CO 2 .

Seasonal Changes in Nocturnal Foliar Respiration in a Mixed Deciduous and Evergreen Broadleaved Forest

Spatial and seasonal variations in nocturnal foliar respiration were measured using static, automated foliage chambers in the Yamashiro Experimental Forest, a broadleaved secondary forest in Kyoto, central Japan. To understand how deciduous and evergreen trees control their CO2 flux in this forest, we measured respiration of the upper and lower canopies of two species. Chambers measured nocturnal respiration at 30-min intervals. Foliage of Quercus serrata and llex pedunculosa from the uppermost and lowermost canopies was inserted into foliage chambers and observed continuously for 1 year (2003). Air temperature and foliar respiration were strongly correlated, except in Q. serrata foliage at the beginning of the growing season. The growth component of respiration in Q. serrata increased and decreased rapidly at the beginning of the growing season. The mean growth component of respiration at the beginning of the growing season equaled 57.6% of the mean nocturnal foliar respiration of Q. serrata. This suggests that the growth respiration of deciduous species is an important component in any estimation of foliar respiration in similar forests.

The regional economic impact of reducing greenhouse gas emissions: Western Australia

This study analyses the general-equilibrium impacts of an international climate change response policy on the economy of Western Australia (WA), one of the most mining-based and energy-intensive states of Australia. It finds that emissions would fall by up to 11% from the base level in WA. However, such environmental benefits emanate at some costs to the state economy; in terms of foregone gross state product, the costs are up to 3% of the base level. Indeed, the actual costs and benefits depend on the precise design of the climate change response policy as well as on the other policies within which it operates. For example, when emission quota permits are sold to industries and no tradeable carbon credits (i.e. credits for the carbon sequestrated in Kyoto forests) are granted, emissions decline by about 8% and GSP falls by about 3% of the base levels. If carbon credits are tradeable, however, the environmental benefits could be increased and the GSP cost could be reduced substantially. Also, the reduced economic activity caused by emission abatement results in a modest fall in net government revenue, despite the additional revenue from permit sales in some cases. Accordingly, government’s fiscal package surrounding the emission permits would influence the emission abatement impacts on the economy. With regard to the effects on the structure of the state economy, the oil and gas industry suffers only a slight contraction but the energy-supplying sector as a whole contracts substantially. It is therefore not surprising that the impacts on the WA economy of curbing emissions by energy and transport industries alone are quite significant when compared to those resulted from all industries’ compliance with the abatement scheme. It needs to be noted that the model projections analysed in the paper are based on simplifying assumptions and tentative scenarios, and hence should be viewed with caution and not be understood as unconditional forecasts.

Carbon Sink Issues under the Kyoto Protocol

The debates about how the sinks of GHG should be accounted under the Kyoto Protocol were delivered of Article 3.3 about the so-called “Kyoto Forest”, which includes Aforestation, Reforestation and Deforestation (ARD) into the scope of the Protocol. However, the definition of these terms has not been established explicitly, and so, depending on the definition of “Reforestation”, the carbon sequestration accounting of forest management activities may vary greatly from country to country. This difference in the institutional arrangement of sinks has some political implications for countries under the Kyoto Protocol.

Changes in landscape planning and land management in Arashiyama National Forest in Kyoto

Arashiyama National Forest, located in the northwestern part of Kyoto city, is one of the most famous tourist sites in Japan with about 10 million visitors per year. The 59.03 ha of forest landscape attracts many people throughout Japan and abroad for its beautiful combinations of cherry blossom, red pine and other deciduous broadleaf trees. From a historical point of view, the forests comprising Arashiyama National Forest were first treated in “unspecified” but “complex” ways, to maintain their preferable landscapes. As the Modern Ages (from 1870) began with the Japanese national government becoming the new administrator of forests, a new forest system in Japan was implemented, leading to forest management systems characterised by “specialisation” and “clarification”. In trying to maintain the ideal landscape or functions, legislations declared prohibited acts, but failed to take into account the effects of one measure upon the other, and/or failed to clarify acceptable actions. This resulted in drastic changes in forest landscape. Our purposes of study were (1) to evaluate the landscape plans and managements based on the changes within the 25 land units demarcated in the landscape management plan of 1931, and (2) to present the relationships between public awareness and landscape management in Arashiyama after the year 1255. Through our investigations and analysis, we conclude that it is very important to conserve sustainable, historical, aesthetic forest landscape, and to take each specific and clarified management objective and system as an individual piece as well as part of a whole picture. We also suggest that administrative affairs alone would not be sufficient to interact and integrate each management purpose. Restoring the cultural interactions between people and landscape is strongly needed for future local landscape planning and management.

Forests, Kyoto and Climate

Global warming is a reality which was acknowledged by governments at the Rio Summit in 1992 and at Kyoto in 1997. Tropical deforestation is emitting CO2 to the atmosphere, and a similar amount of CO2 is being removed from the atmosphere by the growth of forests elsewhere in the world, plus the acceleration of plant growth by increasing CO2 and N supply. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) considered it possible to increase afforestation to offset 7.5% of the carbon that is likely to be emitted by burning fossil fuels up to 2050. Individual countries are claiming forest carbon sinks to offset some of their requirement to cut fossil fuel emissions. Also, some companies are starting independent carbon offset projects. The negotiators at Kyoto agreed very limited carbon sink credits in ‘Kyoto forests’ which must have been created since 1990. However, there are problems with estimation, definition, verification and associated unintended or undesirable effects, which are currently being examined by the IPCC.

An analysis on the spatial distribution patterns of basidiocarps of Agaricales in a Castanopsis-dominated forest in Kyoto

Spatial distribution patterns of basidiocarps of Agaricales were studied in aCastanopsis-dominated forest in Kyoto. Sixty-seven species were recorded, of which 45 species and 99% of total dry weight were ectomycorrhizal fungi belonging to Amanitaceae, Cortinariaceae, Russulaceae, Boletaceae and Strobilomycetaceae. The data were analyzed statistically by using the m-m regression method. Three distribution patterns were recognized: aggregated, random and uniform. Although total basidiocarps were distributed randomly, basidiocarps of most species showed aggregated distributions, suggesting mycelium of ectomycorrhizal and saprotrophic fungi extend in a limited area in the soil. The degree of aggregation was different among species and this difference was suggested to reflect the difference of niche among the species.

Soil macro‐invertebrates and litter disappearance in a Japanese mixed deciduous forest and comparison with European deciduous forests and tropical rainforests

AbstractSoil macro‐invertebrates and rate of litter disappearance were studied in a ridge plot with moder (mor) humus and a bottom plot with mull humus on a slope in a temperate mixed deciduous forest in Kyoto, Japan (J). The results were compared with those from two German beech forests (G) representative of European deciduous forest mor and mull. Between‐plot differences in biomass of total saprophagous animals was much smaller in J than in G, which is dominated by earthworms. Susceptibility to soil acidity and zoogeographical distribution of earthworms were suggested to be related to this situation. Biomass of soil macro‐invertebrates and litter turnover rate were compared among J, G and three types of tropical rainforests in Malaysia (M) in relation to climatic conditions. Taking into account among‐site differences in temperature and moisture, which affect microbial activity and in biomass of saprophagous macro‐invertebrates especially earthworms, the following order of importance of soil macro‐invertebrates in determining the rate of litter disappearance was suggested: G&gt;J&gt;M. Based on the comparison of biomass of earthworms among European deciduous forests, Japanese deciduous forests and tropical rainforests, as well as on the presence or absence of anecic earthworms in these forests, it was suggested that this ranking could be generalized to European deciduous forests &gt; Japanese deciduous forests &gt; tropical rainforests. It was pointed out that this order was the opposite of the gradient in evapotranspiration rate existing among these regions.

Seasonal host alternation by the andromeda lace bug, Stephanitis takeyai (Heteroptera: Tingidae) between its two main host‐plant species

I studied the seasonal occurrence of the andromeda lace bug, Stephanitis takeyai, on its two main host-plant species. In a secondary forest in Kyoto, this bug altered its hosts seasonally, i.e., from an evergreen shrub, Pieris japonica, in winter to a deciduous shrub, Lyonia elliptica, in summer. In contrast, in Nara park where few L. elliptica were available, the bug exploited only P. japonica. Thus, seasonal host alternation by this bug is not obligate. A comparison of adult longevity and fecundity on the two host-plant species demonstrated the higher quality of L. elliptica as a food resource. Corresponding to this difference in host quality, there was a dramatic difference in the seasonal population growth in the two study sites. In Nara, the population size at the beginning of the 2nd generation was almost the same as in the overwintered generation, whereas in Kyoto the population size in the 2nd generation was approximately one hundred times as large as in the overwintered generation. Thus seasonal host alternation is adaptive for the bug. In a previous study, I reported that overwintering as eggs in living leaves of their hosts is likely to be common among all the related species of this bug. Thus, this trait can be considered to be a phylogenetic constraint to the group. I speculate that host alternation by this bug has been derived because it is more adaptive from autoecy on an evergreen plant, similar to the pattern currently found in Nara, and that this bug can not only exploit deciduous host due to a phylogenetic constraint.