Forest Flies Research Articles

Morphotaxonomic Studies and Abundance of Simulium damnosumTheobald (Diptera: Simuliidae) Complex in Two Local Government Areas of Ogun State

The sibling species composition of Simulium damnosum sensulato and abundance of these sibling species in two communities (Opeji and Imala-Odo) of Ogun State south-western Nigeria was carried out in the wet months (May to October). Morphological identification of black flies using standard protocol was done from 07:00hr-18:00hr twice every two weeks. Climatic data like temperature, rainfall and relative humidity were documented for each month. A total of 1543 flies were dissected, 1228(79.6%) in Opeji and 315(20.4%) in Imala-Odo with a statistical significance (p<0.05). The result revealed an allopatric existence of forest dwelling flies. All the flies identified had dark fore coxa but there was variation in the colours of their wing tuft where wing tuft grade 05 was predominant and no fly had wing tuft grade 01 and there was significant difference (p<0.05) in the wing tuft colours observed among the flies. In Opeji, 477(38.8%) flies were parous while 155(49.2%) parous flies were recorded in Imala-Odo. However, no black fly was infected with the larva of Onchocerca volvulus. Relative diurnal distribution of flies caught revealed a bimodal peak between 10:00-11:00hr and 15:00-16:00hr in both communities. Monthly data on abundance also revealed a bimodal peak in the study sites in June and September with a significant difference (p<0.05) in the abundance across the months. Highest biting rate was recorded in June (Opeji=4492.5; Imala-Odo=780) while August recorded the lowest monthly biting rates (Opeji=284; Imala-Odo=62). The relationship between flies abundance and climatic data showed no significant relationship in both communities (p>0.05). This study revealed that there is high abundance of forest black flies during wet season which have epidemiological implication on humans living in these areas and efforts should be made towards constant monitoring of the siblings species

A revision of Centrioncus Speiser (Diptera, Diopsidae, Centrioncinae) with descriptions of new species from Angola, Burundi, and Kenya.

A diagnosis is presented for the Centrioncinae, the Afromontane Forest Flies or stalkless Diopsidae, while its taxonomic position within the Diopsidae is discussed. Arguments are presented for an eventual raising of the Centrioncinae to family level. The differential characters for its two genera, Centrioncus Speiser and Teloglabrus Feijen, are tabulated. The diagnosis for Centrioncus is updated and a key to the ten species now recognised (including three new species) is provided. Centrioncuscrassifemursp. nov. is described from a single female from Angola. This greatly extends the distribution range for the genus. Centrioncusbururiensissp. nov. is described from Burundi, while Centrioncuscopelandisp. nov. originates from the Kasigau Massif of Kenya. Diagnoses, descriptive updates, illustrations and notes are presented for all other Centrioncus. Centrioncusaberrans Feijen, described from Uganda, is now also recorded for western Kenya, Rwanda, and possibly eastern DR Congo. This wide range of C.aberrans is unusual for the Centrioncinae species which have allopatric and usually very restricted distribution ranges. Defining characters of C.aberrans from the various regions were examined in detail, but only minor differences were found. Centrioncusdecoronotus Feijen, described from Kenya, is now recorded for several other places in Kenya. A distribution map is given for the Eastern African Centrioncus species. The eastern branch of the Great Rift Valley appears to form a barrier between C.aberrans and C.decoronotus. The type species of the genus, C.prodiopsis Speiser from the Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, was only known from the 1905-1906 type series. After more than 100 years it has now been found again on the Kenya side of Kilimanjaro. Various differential characters of Centrioncus and Diopsidae are discussed, while brief discussions on sex ratio and fungal parasites are given. Centrioncus are known to occur on low shrubs and herbaceous plants in rain forests. Now, the possibility is indicated that they also might occur higher up in the tree canopies.

Micro-CT imaging of Onchocerca infection of Simulium damnosum s.l. blackflies and comparison of the peritrophic membrane thickness of forest and savannah flies.

Onchocerciasis is a neglected tropical disease (NTD) caused by Onchocerca Diesing 1841 (Spirurida: Onchocercidae) nematodes transmitted by blackflies. It is associated with poverty and imposes a significant health, welfare and economic burden on many tropical countries. Current methods to visualize infections within the vectors rely on invasive methods. However, using micro‐computed tomography techniques, without interference from physical tissue manipulation, we visualized in three dimensions for the first time an L1 larva of an Onchocerca species within the thoracic musculature of a blackfly, Simulium damnosum s.l. Theobald 1903 (Diptera: Simuliidae), naturally infected in Ghana. The possibility that thicker peritrophic membranes in savannah flies could account for their lower parasite loads was not supported, but there were limits to our analysis. While there were no statistically significant differences between the mean thicknesses of the peritrophic membranes, in the anterior, dorsal and ventral regions, of forest and savannah blackflies killed 34–48 min after a blood‐meal, the thickness of the peritrophic membrane in the posterior region could not be measured. Micro‐computed tomography has the potential to provide novel information on many other parasite/vector systems and impactful images for public engagement in health education.

Sympatric occurrence of forest and savannah morphotypes of Simulium damnosum complex (Diptera: Simuliidae) in Osun State, Nigeria

Simulium damnosum Theobald complex is a group of black flies which vector filarial worms that cause onchocerciasis in Africa. Studies were conducted to investigate the morphological composition of adult S. damnosum complex in three ecological zones of Osun State, Nigeria. Adult black flies were sampled between October 2014 and September 2016, and the wing tufts, antennae, fore coxae and other morphotaxonomic characters were observed and classified following standard methods. The results revealed a sympatric occurrence of both forest- and savannah-dwelling groups (morphotypes) of black flies at each zone with the Guinea savannah zone (Iwo) having significantly higher abundance of forest than savannah black flies. The derived savannah (Ede) had higher abundance of savannah than forest black flies while the rainforest (Obokun) had more forest than savannah black flies but there was no significant difference between them. In Iwo, the highest abundance of forest flies was obtained in October and June while savannah flies were highest in November. The monthly abundance of each morphotype of black flies was significantly different in Ede but not in Obokun. Wing tuft colours among forest flies varied significantly in Iwo and Ede. This study indicates that there is substantial morphological diversity among sibling species of black flies which is useful for identification and could be exploited in black fly control. The presence of savannah flies in the three zones calls for surveillance for potential incursion of blinding parasite strain which migrant savannah flies could introduce to the communities.

Quantifying the regularity of a 3D set of points on the surface of an ellipsoidal object

Several natural and artificial structures, such as human skin and mammals cortices, exhibit a compound organization, with basic elements being distributed along a surface. The problem of quantifying the geometrical uniformity of this type of biological and physical compound structures is addressed in this work. This required the solution of several problems, including the detection, along the surface, of the borders of the compound system, defining the adjacency between the elements in the 3D space, and obtaining a reference of uniformity for calculating the polygonality. Specific approaches were devised and applied to address each of these difficulties, including connectivity criteria ensuring the adjacency to remain within the considered surface as well as the extension of the polygonality, originally suggested for 2D structures, to 3D compound systems. The potential of the so-obtained method is illustrated with respect to compound eyes of fungus gnats (small, forest dwelling flies), and interesting results are reported and discussed, including the fact that the uniformity tends to increase toward the center of the system, and the absence of correlation with two measurements traditionally used for characterizing this type of eyes.

Molecular evidence of bacteria in Melophagus ovinus sheep keds and Hippobosca equina forest flies collected from sheep and horses in northeastern Algeria

The sheep ked, Melophagus ovinus, and the forest fly, Hippobosca equina, are parasitic dipteran insects of veterinary importance. As hematophagous insects, they might be considered as potential vectors of diseases which may be transmissible to humans and animals. The purpose of this study was to present initial primary data about these two species in Algeria. To do so, we conducted a molecular survey to detect the presence of bacterial DNA in flies collected in Algeria. A total of 712 flies including, 683 Melophagus ovinus and 29 Hippobosca equina were collected from two regions in northeastern Algeria. Monitoring the monthly kinetics of M. ovinus infestations showed something resembling annual activity, with a high prevalence in January (21.67%) and May (20.94%).Real-time quantitative PCR assays showed that for 311 tested flies, 126 were positive for the Bartonella spp. rRNA intergenic spacer gene and 77 were positive for Anaplasmataceae. A random selection of positive samples was submitted for sequencing. The DNA of Bartonella chomelii and Bartonella melophagi were amplified in, respectively, five and four H. equina. 25 M. ovinus positive samples were infected by Bartonella melophagi. Amplification and sequencing of the Anaplasma spp. 23S rRNA gene revealed that both species were infected by Wolbachia sp. which had previously been detected in Cimex lectularius bed bugs.Overall, this study expanded knowledge about bacteria present in parasitic flies of domestic animals in Algeria.

Faster Than a Lightning Flash

Faster Than a Lightning Flash Huang Lihai (bio) Translated by Ming Di (bio) The river courses like my blood.It's aware of my thirstwhen I'm on the road. Run. I run away from the poverty.The forest is becoming green again.What else has moistened my shirt? Run. The forest flies upMy heart quivers and shakes off its fatigue.My life as short as a lightning flash—before I have time to grieveI'm pushed along. Run. [End Page 41] Huang Lihai Huang Bin 黄斌 was born in Chibi (Red Cliff), in southeastern Hubei province, in 1968. He won first place in the national poetry competition in 1994. His other honors include the ninth Qu Yuan Literary and Art Award. He studied journalism at Wuhan University and now works for the Hubei Daily. Ming Di Ming Di 明迪 is a Chinese poet based in the U.S. She attended Boston College and Boston University, where she taught Chinese. She has published six books of poetry in Chinese along with a collaborative translation, River Merchant's Wife (2012). She co-translated The Book of Cranes by Zang Di (2015) with Neil Aitken, and Empty Chairs: Selected Poems by Liu Xia (2015) with Jennifer Stern, which was a finalist for the 2016 Best Translation Book Award. She edited and co-translated New Cathay: Contemporary Chinese Poetry (2013) and New Poetry from China 1917–2017 (2019). In 2013 and 2014, she received Henry Luce Foundation fellowships. A co-founder of Poetry East West journal, she serves as the China editor for Poetry International Rotterdam. She has also translates from English into Chinese, most recently Observations by Marianne Moore (2018). Copyright © 2019 University of Hawaiʿi Press

Biodivesity and importance of hippoboscids infection in cervids

The present paper focuses on three species belonging to the family Hippoboscidae: Hippobosca equina, Lipoptena cervi and L. fortisetosa – haematophagus ectoparasites typical of cervids. In Europe, the forest flies (H. equina) are observed mainly in horses and cattle, but the primary host of this parasite is the red deer (Cervus elaphus). The host group of deer keds Lipoptena sp. include different ruminant species belonging to Cervidae (moose, red deer, sika deer, fallow deer, roe deer and maral) and Bovidae family (mouflon, european bison, cattle, sheep and goat). Furthermore, some species of carnivores (European badger, dog and red fox) can be accidental hosts. The presence of adult hippoboscid flies in the environment shows strong seasonality. One or two generations of H. equina occurs from May to October. The alate forms of univoltine Lipoptena cervi and probably multivoltine L. fortisetosa appear from August to September, and from June to September, respectively. During warm autumns, both species can be observed in late October, or even November. Hippobosca equina and Lipoptena cervi are native species, unlike the foreign L. fortisetosa. This Asian species was noted in Europe for the first time in the 1960s, and has rapidly spread in numerous countries. The most probable way of L. fortisetosa introduction to Europe was translocation via host (probably sika deer), or natural dispersion throughout Eurasia. Therefore L. fortisetosa should be treated as an alien invasive species in Poland and Europe. Interest in these three neglected dipteran species has increased after reports of their veterinary and medical importance. All these parasite species are able to attack humans. Bites of these insects are considered painful, cause skin lesions with the presence of characteristic persistent pruritic papules, and, in extreme cases, may result in an anaphylactic reaction. Hippoboscids can play a role in the transmission of bacterial pathogens, including Anaplasma and Bartonella genera, dangerous for humans and animals. Permanent and intensive attacks on humans, during the seasonal mass occurrence of these parasites, can hinder forestry work, as well as harvesting, recreation, and hunting activities in forested areas.

Prediction of abundance of forest flies (Diptera) according to climate scenarios RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 in South Korea

This aim of this study was to project the future changes of abundance of dipteran families due to climate change using nationwide fly data of surveys conducted for 4 years from 2006 at 295 sites (forests). Most analyzed families (22) showed characteristics that are expected in normal distribution along a temperature gradient in which the maximum value occurs at an optimum temperature. Temperature changes were projected by Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) 4.5 and 8.5 climate scenarios, and abundance in two periods, 2011s2015 and 2056–2065, was projected using the mean value of abundance in each temperature range. It was predicted that among the 22 families analyzed, the abundance of 21 will decrease and one will increase due to a temperature increase. The family abundance change rates were significantly correlated with temperature. This pattern was used for qualitative prediction (decrease or increase) of other families (> 1% of occurrence). This qualitative prediction also showed that 26 families, except one, were forecasted to decrease.

Potential effects of warmer worms and vectors on onchocerciasis transmission in West Africa.

Development times of eggs, larvae and pupae of vectors of onchocerciasis (Simulium spp.) and of Onchocerca volvulus larvae within the adult females of the vectors decrease with increasing temperature. At and above 25°C, the parasite could reach its infective stage in less than 7 days when vectors could transmit after only two gonotrophic cycles. After incorporating exponential functions for vector development into a novel blackfly population model, it was predicted that fly numbers in Liberia and Ghana would peak at air temperatures of 29°C and 34°C, about 3°C and 7°C above current monthly averages, respectively; parous rates of forest flies (Liberia) would peak at 29°C and of savannah flies (Ghana) at 30°C. Small temperature increases (less than 2°C) might lead to changes in geographical distributions of different vector taxa. When the new model was linked to an existing framework for the population dynamics of onchocerciasis in humans and vectors, transmission rates and worm loads were projected to increase with temperature to at least 33°C. By contrast, analyses of field data on forest flies in Liberia and savannah flies in Ghana, in relation to regional climate change predictions, suggested, on the basis of simple regressions, that 13–41% decreases in fly numbers would be expected between the present and before 2040. Further research is needed to reconcile these conflicting conclusions.

Seasonal fluctuations of Simulium damnosum complex and Onchocerca microfilarial evaluation in river systems, South-west Nigeria

Seasonal fluctuations of the Simulium damnosum Theobald complex and the prevalence of Onchocerca volvulus Bickel in blackflies caught in river systems bordering the Nigeria-Benin border were assessed for their direct impact on the epidemiology of onchocerciasis in South-western Nigeria. Entomological evaluation and heteroduplex assay (HDA) techniques were performed on flies caught in the eight capture points in the Ogun and Yewa river systems between October and December 2007, July and December 2008 and May and December 2009. A total of 5789 blackflies were caught on human bait, of which 727 (12.6%) flies were captured in 2007, 1723 (29.8%) in 2008 and 3339 (57.6%) in 2009. The majority of flies caught during the study were forest flies representing 90.3% of the total catch while savanna flies constituted 9.7%. Proportions of parous to nulliparous flies were low in all the catching points (31.1 and 68.9%, respectively). Of the 5789 flies dissected, 11 (0.2%) flies were infected with Onchocerca parasites with nine of the infected flies having L3 head parasites. The HDA results revealed that the Beffa form of S. soubrense was the dominant cytospecies present (87.1%) in all the capture sites when compared with 12.9% of S. damnosum s.s. The low level of infectivity of flies may therefore indicate a low transmission level of onchocerciasis in the communities along the Ogun and Yewa river systems. However, there is a need for constant surveillance on species composition and fly infectivity in the river systems along the borders of Nigeria-Benin Republic.

Tabanidae and other Diptera on Camel’s Hump Vermont: Ecological Observations

A canopy trap and aerial nets led to finding 8 species of Tabanidae. There was an abundance of calyptrate muscoid flies. Camel’s Hump is in the Green Mountains of western New England, USA. Discovering Diptera on Camel’s Hump involved sixteen visits over 40 years. Upwards of 23 other Diptera species are listed. Habitats on the east side and above 762 m (2500 ft) elevation on Camel’s Hump differ from the west slope but the boreal forest on both sides is influenced by cloud and fog precipitation on trees. The cliffs just above the 900 m level along the east side are often overlooked, are not seen from the summit and provide access to morning sun for insects. Recent visits explored the role of polarized skylight in relation to the canopy trap, the boreal forest environment and flies found there.

Studies on the morphometric characteristics of the Simulium damnosum complex in Uzo-Uwani, Enugu State, Nigeria

Studies on the morphometric characteristics of the Simulium vectors of onchocerciasis were carried out in Uzo-Uwani Local Government Area (LGA), Enugu State, Nigeria, between September 2008 and January 2009, with the objectives of identifying the sibling species present in the area and comparing the result obtained with cytological studies earlier done in the area. It was also meant to relate fly types with the types of onchocerciasis present in the area. The Simulium flies were collected using human baits. Seventy-five (75) flies were subjected to morphometric examinations. The thorax length, antenna length, wing length, wing width and femur length were measured and the data obtained were transformed into ratios. The morphometric studies on the Simulium damnosum populations in Nkpologu showed a higher abundance of savanna flies (54) than forest flies (21) among those sampled. The classification was done using the thorax length/antenna length (TL/AL) ratio. Discriminate function analysis revealed that 96.0% of originally grouped cases were correctly classified. The result agreed with cytotaxonomic studies on Simulium done in the area which showed predominance of savanna flies. The implications of the results are discussed.

Anaphylactic reaction following forest fly(Hippobosca equina)bite: A human case

The authors report the case of a 46-year-old female patient, who experienced an anaphylactic reaction with a lucky outcome following an insect bite. Within a short time, a hard swelling of 15-cm diameter, covered by a serous crust, appeared at the border of her forehead and hairy scalp, with oedema on her forehead. Soon thereafter, erythema and itching developed locally and all over her body, with oedema of her hands, face and lips, later accompanied by shivering, nausea and vomiting. Based on identification with the help of a taxonomic key, the captured insect proved to be a forest fly (Hippobosca equina). As far as we know, this is the first published case of anaphylaxis induced by the bite of this species in Hungary. Forest flies are present all over the world; they have been known in Hungary for a long time; they suck blood several times a day mostly from horses, donkeys or cattle kept on pastures or in stables and cowsheds, and occasionally also from other animal species. As vectors, they transmit various pathogens. By reporting our case, we wish to call the attention of family doctors and clinicians to horse tick bite and the clinical signs and symptoms caused by it, since they have no specific experience required for the diagnosis of such insect bites.

Studies on the types and distribution of <i>S. damnosum</i> adults in Imo state, Nigeria using morphometric method of identification

Studies on the various types and distribution of adult S. damnosumcomplex in Imo Sate Nigeria were carried out between April 2004 and March 2005. The studies were conducted in three selected onchocerciasis endemic communities of the state: - Nguru/Umuaro in Ngor Okpala, Umunumo/Umuawuchi in Ihitte Uboma and Umulolo in Okigwe. Morphometric analysis of adult S. damnosumflies: (colors of forecoxa, wingtuft and antenna) showed that distinct forest flies as well as flies with both savannah and forest characteristics were present in the study area. Forest types were significantly high in abundance (77%), while the savannah type was the least (8.8%) and extremely scarce during the peak of the rains (p

Resource Defense Mating System in Antlered Flies, Phytalmia spp. (Diptera: Tephritidae)

Tropical rain forest flies in the genus Phytalifiia exhibit a resource defense mating system. Males possess lateral projections from the head resembling antlers, and these play a role in contests over access to oviposition sites at the larval substrate. Females arriving at these guarded locations must mate with resident males before depositing eggs. The larval substrate consists of rotting sapwood within downed trees or branches. Experiments in which various tree species were made available within the Phytalmia habitat revealed a limited number of host plant species. Guarded oviposition sites were fewer than the number of males present, and individual sites remained attractive for only 3 d on average. Sex ratios of 3 Phytalmia species were all male-biased at their respective oviposition substrates. Daily censuses of marked Phytalmia mouldsi McAlpine & Schneider revealed different visitation patterns for males and females. Male-male interactions were frequent and differed between species in ways related to interspecific morphological differences. Successful territorial males mated multiply as did females. Following copulation, males of P. mouldsi and Phytalmia alcicornis (Saunders) remained amplexed with females and guarded them as they oviposited, whereas Phytaltmia cervicornis Gerstaecker males dismounted before any eggs were laid. The mating behaviors are discussed in the context of mating system theory with respect to the ecology of these species.

Development of Onchocerca volvulus microfilariae injected into Simulium species from Cameroon

Microfilariae (mff) of the savanna and forest strains of Onchocerca volvulus (Leuckart) were injected intrathoracically into adult females of Simulium damnosum Theobald sensu stricto, S.sirbanum Vajime & Dunbar, S.squamosum Enderlein and S.mengense Vajime & Dunbar. Nine days post infection (pi) 27-29% of the savanna mff and 31-38% of the forest strain had developed to third-stage larvae (L3), irrespective of the fly species, size or injection dose (5, 10 or 15 mff). Savanna flies supported the development of forest O.volvulus better than forest flies, in contrast to the results after per os infections. Therefore, in these four species of the S.damnosum complex from Cameroon, the peritrophic membrane is considered to be the main factor limiting the success rate of microfilarial development following the ingestion of blood infections, while the fly's haemolymph and intracellular environment play minor roles.

The Lutzomyia flaviscutellata complex (Diptera: Psychodidae).

The Lutzomyia (Nyssomyia) flaviscutellata complex is a small but distinctive group of forest sand flies with a marked preference for biting small mammals, which may be related to the unusual structure of the mouthparts. In several areas females transmit parasites of the Leishmania mexicana complex among rodents, and in one they commonly transmit it from rodents to man. The flaviscutellata complex includes at least 3 members. On the proviso that these might represent clinal forms, they have been treated as 2 species, 1 of these comprising 2 subspecies. The status of members of the complex is of interest in relation to their host preference and to the evolution and identity of the forms of Le. mexicana which they transmit. Specimens from 12 areas were examined, measurements were related to wing length, and several features not previously studied were observed. The results emphasize the distinctive nature of the complex, give no evidence of a general cline, and support the existing classification.